social science perspective essay

What Is A Social Science Perspective?

The social sciences offer a unique lens for examining the world around us. From psychology to anthropology, these fields provide insights into human behavior, relationships, institutions, and more. If you’re looking to better understand society and the forces that shape it, exploring social science perspectives is key.

If you’re short on time, here’s a quick answer to your question: The social science perspective looks at the world through the lens of human behavior and interactions . It aims to analyze and understand social phenomena using scientific methods.

In this comprehensive guide, we’ll dive into what the social science perspective entails, how it developed, and why it matters today. With examples from sociology, psychology, political science, and other disciplines, we’ll see how social scientists explore society’s mysteries in hopes of enacting positive change.

Defining the Social Science Perspective

The social science perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior and society through a scientific lens. It involves studying various aspects of society, including individuals, groups, institutions, and cultures, to gain a deeper understanding of how they interact and influence one another.

By applying scientific methods and theories, social scientists aim to uncover patterns, explain social phenomena, and contribute to the development of knowledge in their respective fields.

The Goal of Understanding Society Scientifically

The primary goal of the social science perspective is to understand society scientifically. This means that social scientists seek to examine social phenomena in an objective and systematic way, using empirical evidence and rigorous research methods.

They strive to answer questions about why people behave the way they do, how societies are structured, and how social institutions function. By adopting this perspective, social scientists can offer insights into complex social issues and contribute to evidence-based decision-making.

Key Social Science Disciplines and Subjects

The social science perspective encompasses a wide range of disciplines and subjects. Some of the key disciplines include sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and geography.

Each discipline focuses on different aspects of society and employs distinct theoretical frameworks and research methodologies.

Sociology, for example, examines social interactions, social structures, and social change. Psychology explores individual behavior, cognition, and emotions. Anthropology studies the diversity of human cultures and societies.

Economics examines the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Political science analyzes political systems, power dynamics, and governance. Geography investigates the spatial distribution of human activities and their relationship to the environment.

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Within the social sciences, researchers use a range of quantitative and qualitative methods to gather and analyze data. Quantitative methods involve collecting numerical data and using statistical analysis to identify patterns and relationships.

These methods are often used in disciplines such as economics and sociology to measure social phenomena, test hypotheses, and make predictions.

Qualitative methods, on the other hand, involve collecting non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis, to gain a deeper understanding of social processes and meanings. These methods are commonly used in disciplines such as anthropology and psychology to explore subjective experiences, cultural practices, and social interactions.

Both quantitative and qualitative methods have their strengths and limitations, and researchers often use a combination of both to gain a comprehensive understanding of social phenomena. By employing rigorous research methods, social scientists can provide valuable insights into human behavior and society, helping us make sense of the complex world we live in.

History and Development of Social Sciences

The study of social sciences has a rich history that dates back to the Enlightenment period in the 18th century. During this time, a group of influential thinkers emerged who sought to understand and explain the social world through reason and empirical evidence.

These Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Adam Smith, laid the foundation for the development of social sciences by emphasizing the importance of individual rights, social contract, and economic theories.

Enlightenment Thinkers

Enlightenment thinkers played a crucial role in shaping the social sciences by challenging traditional beliefs and advocating for the use of reason and scientific methods in understanding society. John Locke, for example, argued for the concept of natural rights and the idea that society is formed through a social contract between individuals.

Rousseau, on the other hand, focused on the idea of the general will and the importance of equality in society. These ideas laid the groundwork for future sociological and political theories.

19th Century Growth

The 19th century witnessed significant growth in the field of social sciences, as scholars began to explore various aspects of society in more depth. This period saw the emergence of disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and psychology.

Sociologists like Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim sought to understand the social forces that shape human behavior and interactions. Anthropologists like Franz Boas studied different cultures and societies to gain insights into human diversity.

Psychologists like Sigmund Freud delved into the human mind and behavior.

Emergence of Modern Social Science

The emergence of modern social science can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During this time, scholars began to develop more systematic and scientific approaches to studying society.

The establishment of research institutions, such as the Chicago School of Sociology and the Frankfurt School, further contributed to the growth of social sciences.

Today, social sciences encompass a wide range of disciplines, including sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and more. These disciplines continue to evolve and adapt to the changing social landscape, providing valuable insights into human behavior, social structures, and societal issues.

Hallmarks of the Social Science Perspective

The social science perspective is a unique lens through which researchers analyze and understand human behavior and society. It encompasses various disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, and political science.

Here are some key hallmarks of the social science perspective:

Seeing Humans as Social Beings

One of the central tenets of the social science perspective is the recognition that humans are inherently social beings. This means that our thoughts, actions, and behaviors are influenced by the social interactions and relationships we have with others.

Social scientists study how individuals navigate social structures, norms, and institutions, and how these factors shape our identities and behaviors. By understanding the social nature of humans, social scientists can gain insights into why people behave the way they do in different social contexts.

Focus on Empirical Evidence

Social scientists rely on empirical evidence to support their theories and conclusions. Empirical evidence refers to data that is collected through systematic observation or experimentation. This evidence can be quantitative, such as statistical data, or qualitative, such as interviews or observations.

By using empirical evidence, social scientists aim to make their research objective, reliable, and replicable. This emphasis on evidence-based research helps to ensure that findings are not based solely on personal opinions or biases.

Interdisciplinary Approach

The social science perspective adopts an interdisciplinary approach, drawing on insights and methodologies from various disciplines. Social problems are complex and multifaceted, often requiring a multidimensional analysis to fully understand and address them.

For example, addressing poverty may involve examining economic factors, social policies, and psychological impacts. By incorporating multiple perspectives, social scientists can develop a more comprehensive understanding of societal issues and propose more effective solutions.

This interdisciplinary approach encourages collaboration and the integration of knowledge across different fields.

The social science perspective offers a valuable framework for understanding the complexities of human behavior and society. It allows researchers to delve deeper into the social dynamics that shape our lives and contribute to the development of evidence-based solutions to social challenges.

To learn more about the social science perspective, you can explore reputable sources such as Social Science Space or Social Science Research Network .

Applying Social Science Insights

Applying a social science perspective involves utilizing insights and theories from various social science disciplines to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior and societal dynamics. This approach allows researchers and professionals to analyze and interpret social phenomena in order to inform decision-making and improve outcomes in a variety of fields.

Informing Law and Public Policy

One significant way in which a social science perspective is applied is in informing law and public policy. By examining social trends, conducting research, and analyzing data, social scientists provide valuable insights into the impact of policies and legislation on individuals and communities.

For example, sociologists may study the effects of criminal justice policies on recidivism rates, while political scientists may analyze voter behavior and its implications for electoral reform. These insights help policymakers make informed decisions that can lead to more effective and equitable laws and policies.

Improving Organizational Behavior

Another area where a social science perspective is highly relevant is in improving organizational behavior. Social scientists study human behavior within organizations and identify factors that contribute to productivity, job satisfaction, and overall well-being.

By applying social science insights, organizations can create more inclusive and supportive work environments, enhance teamwork and collaboration, and improve employee engagement. This, in turn, can lead to increased productivity and overall organizational success.

Guiding Social Work and Activism

Social workers and activists also benefit from applying a social science perspective to their work. By understanding the social, economic, and cultural factors that contribute to various social issues, professionals in these fields can develop more effective interventions and strategies for change.

For example, psychologists may use social science research to inform therapeutic approaches for individuals experiencing trauma, while sociologists may study social inequalities to guide advocacy efforts for marginalized communities.

By incorporating social science insights into their practice, social workers and activists can make a greater impact and bring about positive social change.

The Value of Social Science Perspectives Today

When it comes to understanding complex social issues, a social science perspective is invaluable. Social science encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, and political science, among others.

These disciplines provide unique insights into human behavior, social structures, and cultural dynamics, offering a comprehensive understanding of the world we live in.

Shedding Light on Social Issues

Social science perspectives are crucial in shedding light on pressing social issues. By studying patterns and trends, social scientists are able to identify and analyze social problems such as poverty, inequality, discrimination, and crime.

They delve into the root causes of these issues, examining the underlying social, economic, and political factors that contribute to their existence. With this knowledge, they can propose evidence-based solutions to address these challenges and promote social change.

For example, sociologists have played a vital role in understanding the impact of race and gender on opportunities for education and employment. By examining data on graduation rates, income disparities, and hiring practices, they have been able to highlight systemic inequalities and advocate for policies that promote equal opportunity for all.

Promoting Evidence-Based Change

Social science perspectives emphasize the importance of evidence-based decision-making and policy development. By conducting rigorous research and analysis, social scientists gather data and evidence to support or challenge existing theories and assumptions.

This evidence guides policymakers, organizations, and individuals in making informed choices that have a positive impact on society.

For instance, economists use statistical models and data analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of economic policies. They examine factors such as GDP growth, unemployment rates, and income distribution to determine the impact of different policies on the overall well-being of a society.

This evidence-based approach helps policymakers make informed decisions that promote economic stability and prosperity.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Studying social sciences cultivates critical thinking skills that are essential in today’s complex world. Social scientists are trained to question assumptions, challenge prevailing beliefs, and critically analyze information.

This ability to think critically allows individuals to evaluate sources of information, recognize biases, and make informed judgments.

By encouraging open-mindedness and intellectual curiosity, social science perspectives foster a deeper understanding of social phenomena and human behavior. They teach individuals to consider multiple perspectives and appreciate the complexities of social issues.

This critical thinking skill set is not only valuable in academic settings but also in everyday life, as it enables individuals to navigate a diverse and rapidly changing world.

The social science perspective remains incredibly relevant today. As we seek to understand pressing issues like inequality, political polarization, and systemic racism, social science insights provide invaluable tools.

By taking a rigorous, empirical approach to studying society and human interactions, social scientists make advances that can lead to real, positive change. While no single perspective can provide all the answers, examining the world through a social science lens allows us to confront problems in a thoughtful, enlightened way.

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Social Science — The Vital Significance of Social Science in Our Daily Lives

The Vital Significance of Social Science in Our Daily Lives

• Categories: Personal Life Social Science

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Published: Sep 12, 2023

Words: 800 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

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Understanding human behavior, shaping public policy, enhancing personal finance, addressing social issues, fostering global citizenship, enhancing critical thinking and problem-solving, informing personal values and ethics.

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Communication

What is a Social Science Essay?

[Ed. – We present this article, adapted from a chapter of Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide , as a resource for Academic Writing Month.]

There are different types of social science essay, and essays of different lengths require slightly different approaches (these will be addressed later). However, all social science essays share a basic structure which is common to many academic subject areas. At its simplest, a social science essay looks something like this:

Title | Every essay should begin with the title written out in full. In some cases this will simply be the set question or statement for discussion.

Introduction | The introduction tells the reader what the essay is about.

Main section | The main section, or ‘body’, of the essay develops the key points of the argument in a ‘logical progression’. It uses evidence from research studies (empirical evidence) and theoretical arguments to support these points.

Conclusion | The conclusion reassesses the arguments presented in the main section in order to make a final statement in answer to the question.

List of references | This lists full details of the publications referred to in the text.

What is distinctive about a social science essay?

As you are no doubt aware, essay writing is a common feature of undergraduate study in many different subjects. What, then, is distinctive about essay writing in the social sciences? There are particular features that characterize social science essays and that relate to what is called the epistemological underpinning of work in this area (that is, to ideas about what constitutes valid social scientific knowledge and where this comes from). Among the most important of these characteristics are:

• the requirement that you support arguments with evidence, particularly evidence that is the product of systematic and rigorous research;

• the use of theory to build explanations about how the social world works.

Evidence is important in social scientific writing because it is used to support or query beliefs, propositions or hypotheses about the social world. Let’s take an example. A social scientist may ask: ‘Does prison work?’ This forms an initial question, but one that is too vague to explore as it stands. (This question might be about whether prison ‘works’ for offenders, in terms of providing rehabilitation, or re-education; or it might be about whether it ‘works’ for victims of crime who may wish to see retribution – or any number of other issues.) To answer the question in mind, the social scientist will need to formulate a more specific claim, one that can be systematically and rigorously explored. Such a claim could be formulated in the following terms:

‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of subsequent reoffending’. This claim can now be subjected to systematic research. In other words, the social scientist will gather evidence for and against this claim, evidence that she or he will seek to interpret or evaluate. This process of evaluation will tend to support or refute the original claim, but it may be inconclusive, and/or it may generate further questions. Together, these processes of enquiry can be described as forming a ‘circuit of social scientific knowledge’. This circuit can be represented as in this figure.

Undergraduates may sometimes be asked to conduct their own small-scale research, for instance a small number of interviews, or some content analysis. However, the focus of social science study at undergraduate level, and particularly in the first two years of study, will be largely on the research of others. Generally, in preparing for writing your essays, the expectation will be that you will identify and evaluate evidence from existing research findings. However, the principle holds good: in writing social science essays you will need to find evidence for and against any claim, and you will need to evaluate that evidence.

Theory is important in social scientific writing because the theoretical orientation of the social scientist will tend to inform the types of question she or he asks, the specific claims tested, the ways in which evidence is identified and gathered, and the manner in which this evidence is interpreted and evaluated. In other words, the theoretical orientation of the social scientist is liable to impact upon the forms of knowledge she or he will produce.

Take, for example, the research question we asked above: ‘Does prison work?’ A pragmatic, policy-oriented social scientist may seek to answer this question by formulating a specific claim of the sort we identified, ‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of reoffending’. She or he may then gather evidence of reoffending rates among matched groups of convicted criminals, comparing those who were imprisoned with those who were given an alternative punishment such as forms of community service. Evidence that imprisonment did not produce significantly lower rates of reoffending than punishment in the community may then be interpreted as suggesting that prison does not work, or that it works only up to a point. However, another social scientist might look at the same research findings and come to a different conclusion, perhaps that the apparent failure of prison to reduce reoffending demonstrates that its primary purpose lies elsewhere. Indeed, more ‘critically’ oriented social scientists (for example, those informed by Marxism or the work of Michel Foucault) have sought to argue that the growth of prisons in the nineteenth century was part of wider social attempts to ‘discipline’, in particular, the working class.

The issue here is not whether these more ‘critical’ arguments are right or wrong but that a social scientist’s theoretical orientation will inform how she or he evaluates the available evidence. In fact, it is likely that a ‘critical’ social scientist of this sort would even have formulated a different research ‘claim’. For example, rather than seeking to test the claim, ‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of reoffending’, the critical social scientist might have sought to test the proposition, ‘Prisons are part of wider social strategies that aim to produce “disciplined” subjects’. The point for you to take away from this discussion is, then, that the theories we use shape the forms of social scientific knowledge we produce (see Figure 2).

There is considerable debate within the social sciences about the exact relationship between theory and evidence. To simplify somewhat, some social scientists tend to argue that evidence can be used to support or invalidate the claims investigated by research and thereby produce theoretical accounts of the social world that are more or less accurate. Other social scientists will tend to argue that our theoretical orientations (and the value judgements and taken-for-granted assumptions that they contain) shape the processes of social scientific enquiry itself, such that we can never claim to produce a straightforwardly ‘accurate’ account of the social world. Instead, they suggest that social scientific knowledge is always produced from a particular standpoint and will inevitably reflect its assumptions.

What you need to grasp is that essay writing in the social sciences is distinguished by its emphasis on: the use of researched evidence to support arguments and on theory as central to the process by which we build accounts of social worlds. Your own writing will need to engage with both elements.

Common errors in essays

Having identified what distinguishes a social science essay we can return to the more practical task of how to write one. This process is elaborated in the chapters that follow, but before getting into the details of this, we should think about what commonly goes wrong in essay writing.

Perhaps the most common mistakes in essay writing, all of which can have an impact on your marks, are:

• failure to answer the question;

• failure to write using your own words;

• poor use of social scientific skills (such as handling theory and evidence);

• poor structure;

• poor grammar, punctuation and spelling; and

• failure to observe the word limit (where this is specified).

Failing to answer the question sounds easy enough to avoid, but you might be surprised how easy it is to write a good answer to the wrong question. Most obviously, there is always the risk of misreading the question. However, it is frequently the case that questions will ‘index’ a wider debate and will want you to review and engage with this. Thus, you need to avoid the danger of understanding the question but failing to connect it to the debate and the body of literature to which the question refers. Equally, particularly on more advanced undergraduate courses, you are likely to be asked to work from an increasing range of sources. The dangers here include failing to select the most relevant material and failing to organize the material you have selected in a way that best fits the question. Therefore, make sure that you take time to read the question properly to ensure that you understand what is being asked. Next, think carefully about whether there is a debate that ‘lies behind’ the question. Then be sure to identify the material that addresses the question most fully.

Writing in your own words is crucial because this is the best way in which you can come to understand a topic, and the only way of demonstrating this understanding to your tutor. The important point to remember is that if you do plagiarize, your essay risks receiving a fail grade, and if you plagiarize repeatedly you risk further sanctions. You must therefore always put arguments in your own words except when you are quoting someone directly (in which case you must use the appropriate referencing conventions). The positive side of what might seem like a draconian rule is that you will remember better what you have put in your own words. This ensures that you will have the fullest possible understanding of your course. If there is an end-of-course exam, such an understanding will be a real asset.

Social science essays also need to demonstrate an effective use of social scientific skills. Perhaps the most obvious of these skills is the ability to deploy theory and evidence in an appropriate manner (as you saw in the previous section, this is what distinguishes social scientific essay writing). However, particularly as you move on to more advanced undergraduate courses, you should also keep in mind the need to demonstrate such things as confidence in handling social scientific concepts and vocabulary; an awareness of major debates, approaches and figures in your field; the ability to evaluate competing arguments; and an awareness of potential uncertainty, ambiguity and the limits of knowledge in your subject. These are important because they indicate your ability to work creatively with the tools of the social scientist’s trade.

An effective structure is important and pragmatic because it helps the person who marks your essay to understand what is going on. By contrast, a list of unconnected ideas and examples is likely to confuse, and will certainly fail to impress. The simplest way to avoid this is to follow the kind of essay writing conventions briefly outlined above and discussed in later chapters of this guide. Chapter 8, on the main body of the essay, is particularly relevant here, but you will also need to keep in mind the importance of a well-written introduction and conclusion to an effectively structured argument.

The ability to spell, punctuate and use grammar correctly is, generally speaking, something you are expected to have mastered prior to embarking on a degree-level course. This is really a matter of effective communication. While it is the content of your essay that will win you the most marks, you need to be able spell, punctuate and use grammar effectively in order to communicate what you have to say. Major problems in this area will inevitably hold down your marks, so if this is an issue in your work, it will be a good idea to seek further help.

Finally, observing the word limit is important – and, as you probably realize, more difficult than it sounds. The simplest advice is always to check whether there is a word limit and what this is, and then to be ruthless with yourself, focusing only on the material that is most pertinent to the question. If you find that you have written more words than is allowed, you will need to check for irrelevant discussions, examples, or even wordy sentence construction. Too few words may indicate that you haven’t provided the depth of discussion required, or that you have omitted essential points or evidence.

In the light of the above, we can identify four golden rules for effective social scientific essay writing.

Rule 1: Answer the question that is asked.

Rule 2: Write your answer in your own words.

Rule 3: Think about the content of your essay, being sure to demonstrate good social scientific skills.

Rule 4: Think about the structure of your essay, being sure to demonstrate good writing skills, and observing any word limit.

Why an essay is not a report, newspaper article or an exam answer

This section has mainly focused on what is distinctive about a social science essay, but there is something distinctive about essays in general that is worth keeping in mind. Many students come from professional backgrounds where report writing is a common form of communication. For other students a main source of information is newspapers or online websites. These are all legitimate forms of writing that serve useful purposes – but, apart from some of the content on academic websites, they just aren’t essays. There are exam conventions that make exam writing – even ‘essay style’ exams – different from essay writing.

In part, this is to do with ‘academic register’ or ‘voice’. Part of what you will develop as you become a stronger essay writer is a ‘voice’ that is your own, but that conforms to the conventions of academic practice. For social scientists, as we have noted above, this practice includes the use of evidence to support an argument and providing references that show where your ideas and evidence have come from. It also includes the ability to write with some confidence, using the vernacular – or language – of your subject area. Different forms of writing serve different purposes. The main purpose of academic writing is to develop and share knowledge and understanding. In some academic journals this can take the form of boisterous debate, with different academics fully and carefully defending, or arguing for, one position or another. For students of social science, however, there may be less at stake, but essays should nevertheless demonstrate knowledge and understanding of a particular issue or area. Conforming to some basic conventions around how to present ideas and arguments, helps us more easily to compare those ideas, just as conforming to the rules of a game makes it easier for one sports team to play against another: if one team is playing cricket and the other baseball, we will find there are similarities (both use bats, have innings, make runs), but there will also be lots of awkward differences. In the end, neither the players nor the spectators are likely to find it a very edifying experience. The following looks at other forms of serious writing that you may be familiar with, but that just aren’t cricket.

Report writing

Reports take a variety of forms, but typically involve: an up-front ‘executive summary’, a series of discussions, usually with numbered headings and subheadings. They are also likely to include ‘bullet points’ that capture an idea or argument in a succinct way. Professional reports may include evidence, arguments, recommendations and references. You may already have spotted some of the similarities with essays – and the crucial differences. Let’s begin with the similarities. Reports and essays both involve discussion, the use of evidence to support (or refute) a claim or argument, and a list of references. Both will have an introductory section, a main body and a conclusion. However, the differences are important. With the exception of very long essays (dissertations and the like), essays do not generally have numbered headings and subheadings. Nor do they have bullet points. They also don’t have executive summaries. And, with some notable exceptions (such as essays around areas of social policy perhaps), social science essays don’t usually require you to produce policy recommendations. The differences are significant, and are as much about style as they are about substance.

Journalistic writing

For many students, journalistic styles of writing are most familiar. Catchy headlines (or ‘titles’) are appealing, and newspapers’ to-the-point presentation may make for easier reading. News stories, however, follow a different set of requirements to essays – a different set of ‘golden rules’. In general, newspaper and website news articles foreground the ‘who, what, where, when and why’ of a story in the first paragraph. The most important information is despatched immediately, with the assumption that all readers will read the headline, most readers will read the first paragraph, and dwindling numbers will read the remainder of the article. Everyday newspaper articles often finish with a ‘whimper’ for this reason, and there may be no attempt to summarize findings or provide a conclusion at the end – that’s not the role of news journalists. (Though there is quite a different set of rules for ‘Op Ed’ or opinion pieces.) Student essays, by contrast, should be structured to be read from beginning to end. The introduction should serve to ‘outline’ or ‘signpost’ the main body of the essay, rather than cover everything in one fell swoop; the main body should proceed with a clear, coherent and logical argument that builds throughout; and the essay should end with a conclusion that ties the essay together.

Exam writing

Again, exam writing has similarities and differences with essay writing. Perhaps the main differences are these: under exam conditions, it is understood that you are writing at speed and that you may not communicate as effectively as in a planned essay; you will generally not be expected to provide references (though you may be expected to link clearly authors and ideas). Longer exam answers will need to include a short introduction and a conclusion, while short answers may omit these. Indeed, very short answers may not resemble essays at all as they may focus on factual knowledge or very brief points of comparison.

Peter Redman and Wendy Maples

Peter Redman is a senior lecturer in sociology at The Open University. With Stephen Frosh and Wendy Hollway, he edit the Palgrave book series, Studies in the Psychosocial and is a former editor of the journal, Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society . Academic consultant Wendy Maples is a research assistant in anthropology at the University of Sussex. Together they co-authored Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide (Sage, 2017) now in its fifth edition.

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AERA Brown Lecture: Brown v. Board of Education and the Democratic Ideals

Webinar: enhancing safety through social sciences – insights for industry, growing up digital: how today’s youth navigate life on screens and at school, all change 2024 – a year of elections: campaign for social science annual sage lecture, cspc 2024: 16th canadian science policy conference.

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New Fellowship for Community-Led Development Research of Latin America and the Caribbean Now Open

Thanks to a collaboration between the Inter-American Foundation (IAF) and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC), applications are now being accepted for […]

Social, Behavioral Scientists Eligible to Apply for NSF S-STEM Grants

Solicitations are now being sought for the National Science Foundation’s Scholarships in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics program, and in an unheralded […]

With COVID and Climate Change Showing Social Science’s Value, Why Cut it Now?

What are the three biggest challenges Australia faces in the next five to ten years? What role will the social sciences play in resolving these challenges? The Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia asked these questions in a discussion paper earlier this year. The backdrop to this review is cuts to social science disciplines around the country, with teaching taking priority over research.

Alondra Nelson Named to U.S. National Science Board

Sociologist Alondra Nelson, who until last year was deputy (and at times acting) director of the White House Office of Science and […]

Felice Levine to Leave AERA in 2025

Social psychologist Felice Levine, who has served as executive director of the American Educational Research Association for more than 22 years, will step down in 2025.

Karine Morin Takes Helm of Canada’s Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences

Karine Morin, whose experience in the policy world spans health and health research, the physical sciences and equity, diversity, and inclusion, has been named the new president and CEO of Canada’s Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences

New Podcast Series Applies Social Science to Social Justice Issues

Sage (the parent of Social Science Space) and the Surviving Society podcast have launched a collaborative podcast series, Social Science for Social […]

Big Think Podcast Series Launched by Canadian Federation of Humanities and Social Sciences

The Canadian Federation of Humanities and Social Sciences has launched the Big Thinking Podcast, a show series that features leading researchers in the humanities and social sciences in conversation about the most important and interesting issues of our time.

The We Society Explores Intersectionality and Single Motherhood

In a recently released episode of The We Society podcast, Ann Phoenix, a psychologist at University College London’s Institute of Education, spoke […]

Just in time for this past summer’s reading list, in May 2024 the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (technically, […]

In this month’s issue of The Evidence newsletter, Josephine Lethbridge explores rising levels of abuse directed towards women in politics, spotlighting research […]

A Social Scientist Looks at the Irish Border and Its Future

‘What Do We Know and What Should We Do About the Irish Border?’ is a new book from Katy Hayward that applies social science to the existing issues and what they portend.

Brexit and the Decline of Academic Internationalism in the UK

Brexit seems likely to extend the hostility of the UK immigration system to scholars from European Union countries — unless a significant change of migration politics and prevalent public attitudes towards immigration politics took place in the UK. There are no indications that the latter will happen anytime soon.

Brexit and the Crisis of Academic Cosmopolitanism

A new report from the Royal Society about the effects on Brexit on science in the United Kingdom has our peripatetic Daniel Nehring mulling the changes that will occur in higher education and academic productivity.

Utilizing Academic-Practitioner Partnering for Societal Impact

In this article, co-authors Natalie Slawinski, Bruna Brito, Jennifer Brenton, and Wendy Smith reflect on the inspiration behind their research article, “Reflections on deep academic–practitioner partnering for generative societal impact,” published in Strategic Organization.

Trippin’ Forward: Management Research and the Development of Psychedelics

Charlie Smith reflects on his interest in psychedelic research, the topic of his research article, “Psychedelics, Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy and Employees’ Wellbeing,” published in Journal of Management Inquiry.

Using Ethnography to Explore Entrepreneurial Extracurricular Activities

Co-authors Birgitte Wraae and Nicolai Nybye reflect on the inspiration behind their research article, “Learning to Be “Me,” “the Team,” and “the Company” Through Entrepreneurial Extracurricular Activities: An Ethnographic Approach,” published in Entrepreneurship Education and Pedagogy.

National Academies Seeks Experts to Assess 2020 U.S. Census

The National Academies’ Committee on National Statistics seeks nominations for members of an ad hoc consensus study panel — sponsored by the U.S. Census Bureau — to review and evaluate the quality of the 2020 Census.

Will the 2020 Census Be the Last of Its Kind?

Could the 2020 iteration of the United States Census, the constitutionally mandated count of everyone present in the nation, be the last of its kind?

Will We See A More Private, But Less Useful, Census?

Census data can be pretty sensitive – it’s not just how many people live in a neighborhood, a town, a state or […]

The large language models, or LLMs, that underlie generative AI tools such as OpenAI’s ChatGPT, have an ethical challenge in how they parasitize freely available data.

Free Online Course Reveals The Art of ChatGPT Interactions

You’ve likely heard the hype around artificial intelligence, or AI, but do you find ChatGPT genuinely useful in your professional life? A free course offered by Sage Campus could change all th

Lee Miller: Ethics, photography and ethnography

Kate Winslet’s biopic of Lee Miller, the pioneering woman war photographer, raises some interesting questions about the ethics of fieldwork and their […]

NSF Seeks Input on Research Ethics

In a ‘Dear Colleague’ letter released September 9, the NSF issued a ‘request for information,’ or RFI, from those interested in research ethics.

Let’s Return to Retractions Being Corrective, Not Punitive

The retraction of academic papers often functions as an indictment against a researcher’s reputation. Tim Kersjes argues that for retractions to function as an effective corrective to the scholarly record, they need shed this punitive reputation.

Institute for Social Research 75th Anniversary Symposium

In celebration of the 75th anniversary of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan, ISR will host a free […]

This webinar will delve into the crucial aspects of safety culture and risk abatement across four key industries: healthcare, mine safety, offshore […]

With over 50 countries around the world holding major elections during 2024 it has been a hugely significant year for democracy as […]

Exploring ‘Lost Person Behavior’ and the Science of Search and Rescue

What is the best strategy for finding someone missing in the wilderness? It’s complicated, but the method known as ‘Lost Person Behavior’ seems to offers some hope.

New Opportunity to Support Government Evaluation of Public Participation and Community Engagement Now Open

The President’s Management Agenda Learning Agenda: Public Participation & Community Engagement Evidence Challenge is dedicated to forming a strategic, evidence-based plan that federal agencies and external researchers can use to solve big problems.

AI Upskilling Can and Should Empower Business School Faculty

If schools provide the proper support and resources, they will help educators move from anxiety to empowerment when integrating AI into the classroom.

Reflections of a Former Student Body President: ‘Student Government is a Thankless Job’

Christopher Everett, outgoing student body president at the University of North Carolina, reflects on the role of student governance in the modern, and conflicted, university

Universities Should Reimagine Governance Along Co-Operative Lines

Instead of adhering to a corporate model based on individual achievement, the authors argue that universities need to shift towards co-operative governance that fosters collaborative approaches to teaching and research

Research Assessment, Scientometrics, and Qualitative v. Quantitative Measures

The creation of the Coalition for Advancing Research Assessment (CoARA) has led to a heated debate on the balance between peer review and evaluative metrics in research assessment regimes. Luciana Balboa, Elizabeth Gadd, Eva Mendez, Janne Pölönen, Karen Stroobants, Erzsebet Toth Cithra and the CoARA Steering Board address these arguments and state CoARA’s commitment to finding ways in which peer review and bibliometrics can be used together responsibly.

Paper to Advance Debate on Dual-Process Theories Genuinely Advanced Debate

Psychologists Jonathan St. B. T. Evans and Keith E. Stanovich have a history of publishing important research papers that resonate for years.

Webinar: Fundamentals of Research Impact

Whether you’re in a research leadership position, working in research development, or a researcher embarking on their project, creating a culture of […]

This Anthropology Course Looks at Built Environment From Animal Perspective

Title of course: Space/Power/Species What prompted the idea for the course? A few years ago, I came across the architect Joyce Hwang’s […]

The Public’s Statistics Should Serve, Well, the Public

Paul Allin sets out why the UK’s Royal Statistical Society is launching a new campaign for public statistics.

Infrastructure

Exploring the ‘Publish or Perish’ Mentality and its Impact on Research Paper Retractions

When scientists make important discoveries, both big and small, they typically publish their findings in scientific journals for others to read. This […]

2024 Henry and Bryna David Lecture: K-12 Education in the Age of AI

The slow, relentless creep of computing is currently in overdrive with powerful artificial intelligence tools impacting every aspect of our lives. What […]

Philosophy Has Been – and Should Be – Integral to AI

Philosophy has been instrumental to AI since its inception, and should still be an important contributor as artificial intelligence evolves..

The Cult of Donald Trump

David Canter considers the parallels between religious beliefs, and cults, with  those followers of  ex-President Trump who have a faith that he can be considered God-like.

Viewing 2024 Economics Nobel Through Lens of Colonialism’s Impact on Institutions

This year’s Nobel memorial prize in economics has gone to Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and […]

Nick Camp on Trust in the Criminal Justice System

The relationship between citizens and their criminal justice systems comes down to just that – relationships. And those relations generally start with […]

The Future of Business is Interdisciplinary 

By actively collaborating with industry, developing interdisciplinary programs and investing in hands-on learning opportunities, business schools can equip graduates with the specific skills and experiences that employers are seeking.

Civilisation – and Some Discontents

The TV series Civilisation shows us many beautiful images and links them with a compelling narrative. But it is a narrative of its time and place.

‘Settler Colonialism’ and the Promised Land

The term ‘settler colonialism’ was coined by an Australian historian in the 1960s to describe the occupation of a territory with a […]

Webinar: Banned Books Week 2024

As book bans and academic censorship escalate across the United States, this free hour-long webinar gathers experts to discuss the impact these […]

Video Interview: Analyzing, Understanding, and Interpreting Qualitative Research from Interviews

Qualitative data analysis is a way of creating insight and empathy. Strategies for data analysis and interpretation are tools for meaning-making and […]

Video Interview: Exploring Visual Research with Gillian Rose

Sometimes a book jumps off my shelf and comes to life. Visual research is easier said than done. It seems simple, in […]

A Behavioral Scientist’s Take on the Dangers of Self-Censorship in Science

The word censorship might bring to mind authoritarian regimes, book-banning, and restrictions on a free press, but Cory Clark, a behavioral scientist at […]

NSF Looks Headed for a Half-Billion Dollar Haircut

Funding for the U.S. National Science Foundation would fall by a half billion dollars in this fiscal year if a proposed budget the House of Representatives’ Appropriations Committee takes effect – the first cut to the agency’s budget in several years.

Digital Transformation Needs Organizational Talent and Leadership Skills to Be Successful

Who drives digital change – the people of the technology? Katharina Gilli explains how her co-authors worked to address that question.

Six Principles for Scientists Seeking Hiring, Promotion, and Tenure

The negative consequences of relying too heavily on metrics to assess research quality are well known, potentially fostering practices harmful to scientific research such as p-hacking, salami science, or selective reporting. To address this systemic problem, Florian Naudet, and collegues present six principles for assessing scientists for hiring, promotion, and tenure.

Book Review: The Oxford Handbook of Creative Industries

Candace Jones, Mark Lorenzen, Jonathan Sapsed , eds.: The Oxford Handbook of Creative Industries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 576 pp. $170.00, […]

Canadian Librarians Suggest Secondary Publishing Rights to Improve Public Access to Research

The Canadian Federation of Library Associations recently proposed providing secondary publishing rights to academic authors in Canada.

Webinar: How Can Public Access Advance Equity and Learning?

The U.S. National Science Foundation and the American Association for the Advancement of Science have teamed up present a 90-minute online session examining how to balance public access to federally funded research results with an equitable publishing environment.

Open Access in the Humanities and Social Sciences in Canada: A Conversation

Five organizations representing knowledge networks, research libraries, and publishing platforms joined the Federation of Humanities and Social Sciences to review the present and the future of open access — in policy and in practice – in Canada

The Added Value of Latinx and Black Teachers

As the U.S. Congress debates the reauthorization of the Higher Education Act, a new paper in Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences urges lawmakers to focus on provisions aimed at increasing the numbers of black and Latinx teachers.

A Collection: Behavioral Science Insights on Addressing COVID’s Collateral Effects

To help in decisions surrounding the effects and aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, the the journal ‘Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences’ offers this collection of articles as a free resource.

Susan Fiske Connects Policy and Research in Print

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Mixed Methods As A Tool To Research Self-Reported Outcomes From Diverse Treatments Among People With Multiple Sclerosis

What does heritage mean to you?

Personal Information Management Strategies in Higher Education

Working Alongside Artificial Intelligence Key Focus at Critical Thinking Bootcamp 2022

SAGE Publishing — the parent of Social Science Space – will hold its Third Annual Critical Thinking Bootcamp on August 9. Leaning more and register here

Watch the Forum: A Turning Point for International Climate Policy

On May 13, the American Academy of Political and Social Science hosted an online seminar, co-sponsored by SAGE Publishing, that featured presentations […]

Event: Living, Working, Dying: Demographic Insights into COVID-19

On Friday, April 23rd, join the Population Association of America and the Association of Population Centers for a virtual congressional briefing. The […]

The Decameron Revisited – Pandemic as Farce

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Pandemic Nemesis: Illich reconsidered

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Public Policy

Daron Acemoglu on Artificial Intelligence

Economist Daron Acemoglu, professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, discusses the history of technological revolutions in the last millennium and what they may tell us about artificial intelligence today.

Economist Kaye Husbands Fealing to Lead NSF’s Social Science Directorate

Kaye Husbands Fealing, an economist who has done pioneering work in the “science of broadening participation,” has been named the new leader of the U.S. National Science Foundation’s Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences.

Jane M. Simoni Named New Head of OBSSR

Clinical psychologist Jane M. Simoni has been named to head the U.S. National Institutes of Health’s Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research

Canada’s Federation For Humanities and Social Sciences Welcomes New Board Members

Annie Pilote, dean of the faculty of graduate and postdoctoral studies at the Université Laval, was named chair of the Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences at its 2023 virtual annual meeting last month. Members also elected Debra Thompson as a new director on the board.

A Milestone Dataset on the Road to Self-Driving Cars Proves Highly Popular

The idea of an autonomous vehicle – i.e., a self-driving car – isn’t particularly new. Leonardo da Vinci had some ideas he […]

National Academies Looks at How to Reduce Racial Inequality In Criminal Justice System

To address racial and ethnic inequalities in the U.S. criminal justice system, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine just released “Reducing Racial Inequality in Crime and Justice: Science, Practice and Policy.”

Survey Examines Global Status Of Political Science Profession

The ECPR-IPSA World of Political Science Survey 2023 assesses political science scholar’s viewpoints on the global status of the discipline and the challenges it faces, specifically targeting the phenomena of cancel culture, self-censorship and threats to academic freedom of expression.

Report: Latest Academic Freedom Index Sees Global Declines

The latest update of the global Academic Freedom Index finds improvements in only five countries

Analyzing the Impact: Social Media and Mental Health 

The social and behavioral sciences supply evidence-based research that enables us to make sense of the shifting online landscape pertaining to mental health. We’ll explore three freely accessible articles (listed below) that give us a fuller picture on how TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat, and online forums affect mental health. 

The Risks Of Using Research-Based Evidence In Policymaking

With research-based evidence increasingly being seen in policy, we should acknowledge that there are risks that the research or ‘evidence’ used isn’t suitable or can be accidentally misused for a variety of reasons. 

Surveys Provide Insight Into Three Factors That Encourage Open Data and Science

Over a 10-year period Carol Tenopir of DataONE and her team conducted a global survey of scientists, managers and government workers involved in broad environmental science activities about their willingness to share data and their opinion of the resources available to do so (Tenopir et al., 2011, 2015, 2018, 2020). Comparing the responses over that time shows a general increase in the willingness to share data (and thus engage in Open Science).

Megan Stevenson on Why Interventions in the Criminal Justice System Don’t Work

Megan Stevenson’s work finds little success in applying reforms derived from certain types of social science research on criminal justice.

How ‘Dad Jokes’ Help Children Learn How To Handle Embarrassment

Yes, dad jokes can be fun. They play an important role in how we interact with our kids. But dad jokes may also help prepare them to handle embarrassment later in life.

Developing AFIRE – Platform Connects Research Funders with Innovative Experiments

The Accelerator For Innovation and Research Funding Experimentation (AFIRE) is a new tool dedicated to boosting and revitalizing the design, synthesis, and implementation of experiments through innovation and research funding.

Using Video Data Analysis in the 21st Century

In 2011, anti-government protests and uprisings erupted in Northern Africa and the Middle East in what is often called the “Arab Spring.” […]

Exploring Hybrid Ethnography with Liz Przybylski

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Iris Berent on the Innate in Human Nature

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Responsible Management Education Week 2024: Sage Asks ‘What Does It Mean to You?’

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Tejendra Pherali on Education and Conflict

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Immigration Court’s Active Backlog Surpasses One Million

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Ping, Read, Reply, Repeat: Research-Based Tips About Breaking Bad Email Habits

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AI Database Created Specifically to Support Social Science Research

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Perspectives on social sciences (1): What are the social sciences and why do they matter?

• Guest Feature

Professor Sir Cary L. Cooper CBE FAcSS and Professor Jonathan Michie FAcSS 

Social scientists analyse and describe how society functions and develops.  This includes understanding the behaviour of those who make up society – individuals, families and communities; companies and other organisations; governments and regulators.  It also includes considering – and predicting and influencing – the results of those behaviours, from armed conflicts and forced migration, to the climate crisis and the relation between humanity and nature.

Within the social sciences, economists focus on the ‘wealth of nations’ – and how this is generated and distributed.[2]  Political scientists are concerned with ideas of power, justice, liberty and representation – and how these ideas get translated into policies that are then implemented at national and other levels.  Legal scholars analyse the rules by which rights are either asserted or protected, and the processes through which people and organisations are governed.  Organisational psychologists consider how people behave with one another, and how this changes individual and organisational behaviours, and how this will impact productivity and the health and wellbeing of employees.  Sociologists and social anthropologists are interested in groups, communities and cultures in society and between different cultures.  Geographers are concerned with geospatial differences and the interactions between people, places and environments.  Of course, these disciplines also work together – and collaborate both within the social sciences and beyond.

For example, dealing with the COVID-19 crisis relies on medical sciences to treat patients and develop vaccines.  Vitally important also is to understand the nature of globalisation, how to deal with risk, the approach of governments, the socio-economic, demographic and ethnic-related vulnerabilities and where those people are located, the reaction of companies and the use of patents, the behaviour of people during and after a lockdown, and so forth.

The national and global recovery from the crisis will depend crucially on how governments and other regulators can influence individuals, firms, consumers and investors; on how health, educational and other organisations learn, adapt and develop; on how social capital and the third sector can be maintained; and how lessons can be learned from these various aspects of societal behaviour to inform policy development and implementation in the future.

Similarly with the climate crisis.  Climate science is vital.  So too is an understanding of consumer psychology and behaviour, management decision making and corporate goals, legislative and regulatory debates, policy development and its impacts, and the longer term role of education.  All the climate science in the world will not change anything unless we get societal understanding, behaviour change, and policy action.  The social sciences provides research that helps us to motivate individual, organisational and political change – incentivising people to use less fossil fuels or buy more environment-friendly cars or use different modes of transport, and regulating and legislating to change corporate purpose and societal outcomes.

In short, to understand today’s world requires the social sciences.  As does effective intervention to shape our future.

The social sciences are continually developing and advancing.  As Albert Einstein is reputed to have said, “We cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them”.  Thinking across the social sciences are brought together in an Academy of Social Sciences book, Why the Social Sciences Matter, which analyses a range of problems facing society, and considers possible solutions.[3]

Happiness and wellbeing; inequalities of income, wealth and power; migration and cultural change; globalisation and regional economic development; sustainability and governance  – social science is the process of analysing and understanding such matters, which enables appropriate policies and practices to be crafted and followed.

The need for evidence-based policy

Understanding the impact of laws and regulations is itself the subject of social science.  Thus, policies that may have been developed in response to breakthroughs in medical or climate science will require an understanding of the social sciences to be well crafted and effective.  That is why it is wholly misguided to think that a country should focus on the ‘STEM’ subjects (of science, technology, engineering and mathematics) at the expense of the social sciences; both working together so often offer the better solutions.  To understand those topics requires an understanding of the societies in which they operate.  Furthermore, public policy must be evidence based, and social science is necessary to gather, analyse, understand and present that evidence.  And to draw conclusions for more effective policy development in the future.

As a former President of the British Science Association put it: “There is a growing realisation that much of social science relies heavily on the backing of natural science, and much of natural science only makes sense in the context of social science.”[4]

The great challenges facing society today needs a strong social sciences community to analyse, educate, and advise.  Our future depends upon it.  Fortunately, the UK is at the forefront of social science research and scholarship.  But to retain that strength requires continued investment and support.

[1] We are grateful to Rita Gardner, CEO of the Academy of Social Sciences for inviting us to write this piece and for helpful comments. [2] An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith was published in 1776. [3] ‘This volume … illuminates why a social scientific understanding gives us a grasp on a topic that would not be provided by those working in the fields of science, humanities or the arts; in other words, this book makes plain what is distinctive and thus invaluable about a social science perspective”, Jonathan Michie and Cary L. Cooper (eds)(2015), Why the Social Sciences Matter , Palgrave Macmillan. [4] In ‘ That’s interesting, science is exciting ‘, Anne McLaren, president of the British Association, invites young and old to come to Loughborough to join in the fun’, Independent, 5th September 1994.

About the authors

Professor Sir Cary Cooper, CBE FAcSS, 50th Anniversary Professor of Organizational Psychology & Health, Alliance Manchester Business School, University of Manchester. Academy of Social Sciences Chair, 2009-2015

Professor Jonathan Michie FAcSS, Professor of Innovation and Knowledge Exchange, and President of Kellogg College, University of Oxford

The Perspectives on Social Science series invites personal views from eminent Academy Fellows on the nature of social sciences and their relevance to our contemporary world.

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25 Social Sciences Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

The social sciences are academic disciplines concerned with the study of human society and social relationships (Stone, 2018).

Social sciences disciplines span sociology, psychology, political science, anthropology , geography, and economics, among others.

Throughout history, the social sciences have given us significant understandings of various aspects of human existence, stretching from individual behavior to societal structures (Architecture et al., 2012).

The products of social sciences research provide an extensive understanding of societal dynamics. Here is where the relevance of social sciences grows evident.

For instance, the insights derived from the social sciences disciplines can help policymakers to make well-calibrated policy decisions (King & Pardo-Cuellar, 2016).

Social Sciences Examples

1. sociology.

Sociology is the systematic study of societies, social interactions, and patterns of social behavior .

It attempts to understand how personal human interaction impacts and is affected by collective group behaviors , societal institutions, and broad social trends (Berger & Weisner, 2014).

Topics in sociology can range from family structures to global poverty, reflecting a wide scope.

By analyzing both the micro- and macro-level components of societies, sociology provides a multifaceted lens into the complex societies in which we live (Davis & Halpern, 2012).

Potential Career Paths 1. Social worker 2. Policy Analyst 3. Market Research Analyst 4. Public Relations Specialist 5. College Professor

2. Anthropology

Anthropology focuses on understanding humans and their cultures across time and space (Henrich & Gil-White, 2001).

Anthropology tries to understand humanity throughout the ages by investigating human life from various perspectives: biological, historical, cultural, and archaeological (Reyes-García et al., 2016).

Potential Career Paths 1. Cultural Resource Manager 2. Market Researcher 3. User Experience Researcher 4. Human Rights Advocate 5. Museum Curator

3. Psychology

Psychology centers on understanding the complexities of mind and behavior (Owen et al., 2016).

The field aims to investigate everything related to human experience: mental processes, emotions, behaviors, cognition, etc. – both normal and ‘abnormal’ (Cabrera et al., 2018).

Psychology is a multifaceted discipline that encompasses various sub-disciplines like clinical psychology , cognitive psychology , developmental psychology, and more.

Potential Career Paths 1. Clinical Psychologist 2. Counselor 3. Human Resources Personality Assessor 4. Forensic Psychologist 5. Neuropsychologist

4. Political Science

Political science involves detailed examination of political systems, theories of government organization, and the conduct of public policy (Reitsma et al., 2016).

It investigates the roles of individuals and groups within political systems, exploring how they operate in various context. Political scientists also explore issues like political power dynamics, international relations, geopolitics, and political-legal frameworks (Kellner & Hepp, 2019).

Overall, political science seeks to decipher how political systems and their subsequent policies impact everyday life on both micro and macro levels.

Potential Career Paths 1. Political Consultant 2. Public Policy Analyst 3. Diplomat 4. Politician 5. Journalist

5. Economics

Economics is a social science that examines how people, organizations, and societies produce, distribute, and consume resources (Mankiw, 2014).

It spans over two main streams – macroeconomics, which analyzes entire economies and their various segments; and microeconomics, which seeks to understand individual decisions within an economic framework (Gruber et al., 2016).

The discipline applies scientific methodologies to study economic phenomena, yielding objective insights into complex economic systems.

Perhaps its most important aim is to inform fiscal policies that enhance society’s overall well-being. To this end, economics offers tools and frameworks that individuals, companies, and governments can use to sustain a healthy and productive economy.

Potential Career Paths 1. Economist 2. Financial Analyst 3. Management Consultant 4. Market Research Analyst 5. Policy Analyst

6. Human Geography

Human Geography focuses on the study of people’s relationships with their environments (Hubbard et al., 2010).

The discipline seeks to understand spatial aspects of human existence – how cultures and societies adapt to their environments and transform them.

It may explore concepts such as the dynamics of population migration, urbanization, regional development, and global integration (Trudeau & McMorran, 2011).

By bridging the natural world with human society, human geography offers unique insights into sustainable practices for societal development.

Potential Career Paths 1. Urban Planner 2. Environmental Consultant 3. Geospatial Analyst 4. Transportation Management 5. Economic Developer

7. Archaeology

Archaeology is a subdiscipline of anthropology concerned with the systematic recovery and scientific investigation of material remains of past human life and culture (Scarre & Scarre, 2016).

The branch explores human history starting from prehistoric times up to contemporary periods through excavation and analysis of artifacts like tools, pottery, architecture – all evidence of past human civilizations (Wynn & Coolidge, 2011).

Archaeology can offer a comprehensive picture of important historical developments in human cultures.

Potential Career Paths 1. Archaeologist 2. Historic Preservation Officer 3. Museum Curator or Archivist 4. Cultural Resource Manager 5. Post-secondary Teacher   

8. Social Work

Social work is a branch of the social sciences dedicated to promoting the well-being of individuals, families, groups, and societies (Johnson et al., 2014).

It often involves addressing social issues like poverty, discrimination, and abuse through therapeutic interventions or policy advocacy (Dominelli & Campling, 2012).

Social workers often focus on engaging with diverse and marginalized individuals in distress, helping to provide them with suitable interventions or support in order to empower them and help them achieve upward mobility.

By directly aiding vulnerable individuals or groups in society and influencing social policies for their benefits, social work plays an instrumental role in fostering equity in societies.

Potential Career Paths 1. School Social Worker 2. Clinical Social Worker 3. Child Welfare Social Worker 4. Mental Health Therapist 5. Substance Abuse Counselor

9. Criminology

Criminology is a branch of sociology that studies the nature, causes, control, and prevention of criminal behavior both in the individual and in society (Siegel & Welsh, 2015).

It emphasizes the social and psychological impacts of crimes, including the effects of crime on its victims, and causes of criminal behavior.

Criminology uses scientific methodologies to observe criminal behavior and how it influences societal patterns (Durrant & Ward, 2012). It also plays a crucial role in informing crime legislation and correctional practices.

Potential Career Paths 1. Criminologist 2. Forensic Psychologist 3. Corrections Officer 4. Police Officer 5. Probation Officer

10. International Relations

International relations (IR) is a field emphasizing the relationships between countries, the roles of sovereign nations, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multi-national corporations (Mingst & Arreguin-Toft, 2013).

It explores the complexities of international politics, international law, and international economics, to understand global problems such as human rights concerns, international conflict, financial crises, trade disputes, etc.

International relations also has an important role in interpreting processes of globalization and their implications for international power dynamics (Sayers & Tomlinson, 2018).

Fusing historical understanding with geopolitical analysis, IR aids decision-makers in formulating informed international policies.

Potential Career Paths 1. Diplomat 2. International Consultant 3. Political Analyst 4. Non-profit/NGO Organizer 5. Intelligence Specialist 

11. Education Studies

Education studies investigate processes of teaching and learning within various settings like schools, universities or informal education institutions (Petrina et al., 2014).

Research in this discipline spans domains such as pedagogical theories, instructional design, curriculum development, educational psychology, and learning assessment techniques (Cobanoglu et al., 2018).

Education studies aim to refine educational practices by integrating scientific evidence into teaching methodologies to improve student’s learning experiences and outcomes. In essence, its focus is fostering effective educational environments that uphold equal opportunities for all learners.

Potential Career Paths 1. Teacher or Professor 2. Instructional Designer 3. Education Policy Analyst 4. School Principal or Administrator 5. Special Education Specialist 

12. Communication Studies

Communication studies deal with the processes of human communication and its effective use across various contexts – from interpersonal communication to mass media outlets (Miller et al., 2014).

The discipline explores various facets of communication – verbal/non-verbal communication, group dynamics in communication processes or influences of culture/media on communication (Carey & Hannan 2014).

Critical research in this domain assists in developing strategies for effective communications that enhance decisions making processes or conflict resolution techniques across fields like business or politics.

Potential Career Paths 1. Public Relations Specialist 2. Corporate Communications Manager 3. Media Analyst 4. Political Campaign Coordinator  5. Health Communication Specialist

13. Linguistics

Linguistics is the study of language, exploring its structure, sound systems, meaning, and the social and cultural contexts in which it exists (Chomsky, 2012).

It explores aspects of language such as phonetics and phonology (sound systems), morphology (words), syntax (sentence formation), semantics and pragmatics (meaning). Through this work, it attempts to understand patterns of speech and text in various languages.

Linguistics also involves sociolinguistics – the relationships between language and society, and psycholinguistics – the processes happening in brain during communication (Friederici, 2012).

By providing fundamental insights into the human capacity for language acquisition and use, linguistics allows for effective study of and improvement in communication both within and across cultural boundaries.

Potential Career Paths 1. Linguist 2. Language Educator 3. Speech-Language Pathologist 4. Interpreter or Translator 5. Computational Linguist

14. Gender Studies

Gender Studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines how sex and gender influence our lives (Butler, 2011).

It explores gender identities , roles, biases, interactions, and gendered institutions from sociological, feminist, marxist, psychological, historical, economic, and literary vantage points.

Gender Studies seeks to understand how our social structures are influenced by gender constructs and how these constructs impact individual attitudes and experiences (Lorber & Farrell, 2010).

This discipline fosters equality by exposing biases in societal norms related to gender that often go unnoticed or unchallenged.

Potential Career Paths 1. Human Rights Advocate 2. Gender Equality Officer 3. Social Worker 4. Journalist 5. Public Policy Analyst

15. Cultural Studies

Cultural studies focuses on understanding and interpreting the ways in which individuals make sense of societal norms, beliefs, artifacts, and institutions and how they form their identities accordingly (Hall et al., 2013).

It analyzes multiple aspects shaping social life – such as media, technology, and ideologies, using theoretical perspectives from sociology, anthropology, and literary theory.

Cultural studies serves as a critical tool for interrogating socio-cultural phenomena – including social inequalities or cultural transformations – thereby fostering a comprehensive understanding of contemporary culture (Grossberg et al., 2017).

Potential Career Paths 1. Communication Strategist 2. Diversity Coordinator 3. Arts Administrator 4. Media Analyst 5. University Professor

16. Ethnology

Ethnology is a branch under anthropology concerned with comparative studies of different cultures (Franz & Boas, 2018).

It involves analyzing cultural phenomena based on field study data gathered from living cultures or historical records, with a focus on uncovering intersocietal similarities or differences.

Ethnologists study topics like religion, economic practices or political structures across various cultures in order to offer cross-cultural insights into the human experience (Erikson & Murphy 2017).

As such, ethnology plays a pivotal role in fostering cross-cultural understanding in an increasingly globalized world.

17. Social Psychology

Social Psychology is a discipline that investigates how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Fiske, 2014).

It explores how social influences shape individual’s attitudes, beliefs, decision-making processes, and behaviors.

Central themes include social perception, social influence, interpersonal attraction, and group behavior.

Furthermore, it seeks to understand the impact of social disparities on an individual’s mental health and behavior (Card, 2020). 

Overall, social psychology provides practical solutions for improving social relationships and managing conflicts within societal settings.

Potential Career Paths 1. Social Psychologist 2. Human Resources Manager 3. Behavioral Analyst 4. Crisis Intervention Counselor 5. Market Research Analyst 

18. Public Health Studies

Public Health focuses on protecting and improving the health of communities through education, promotion of healthy lifestyles, and research for disease and injury prevention (Marmot, 2020).

It analyses the impact of genetic, environmental and social factors on human health and aims to prevent health issues from occurring or re-occurring through implementing educational programs and advocating policies (Novignon & Nonvignon, 2020).

Public health also plays a crucial role in disease surveillance and response during health emergencies. A core objective is to reduce health disparities among different segments of the population.

Potential Career Paths 1. Public Health Officer 2. Disease Investigator 3. Environmental Health Specialist 4. Health Educator 5. Biostatistician 

19. Urban Studies

Urban Studies is an interdisciplinary field centered around cities and urban areas, their formation, function, and their impact on society and nature (Knox & Pinch, 2014).

It explores issues of city planning, urbanization, and urban sustainability from a socio-economic, environmental and political perspective (Glaeser, 2011).

Urban Studies seeks to understand how urban environments shape and are shaped by various factors, including social, economic, and cultural practices, thus making city living more sustainable, equitable, and vibrant. 

Potential Career Paths 1. Urban Planner 2. Urban Policy Analyst 3. Transportation Planner 4. Urban Sociologist 5. Community Development Coordinator 

20. Demography

Demography studies statistical patterns of human populations including size, composition, density and distribution (Poston & Bouvier, 2017).

It explores phenomena such as fertility, mortality, migration and how these dynamics affect the size and structure of a population over time (Riley, 2011).

Demography provides insights into societal problems like overpopulation, aging, and social mobility , influencing social policies related to health, education, and economic development.

In essence, demography plays a pivotal role in planning and policymaking processes.

Potential Career Paths 1. Demographer 2. Population Analyst 3. Market Research Analyst 4. Public Policy Analyst 5. Health Demographer

21. Human Rights Studies

Human Rights Studies is an interdisciplinary field examining the historical, philosophical, legal, and social underpinnings of human rights movements and concepts (Morsink, 2017).

It focuses on understanding, analyzing, and addressing human rights issues globally, ranging from civil liberties to economic and social rights.

Human Rights Studies also explore the mechanisms in place to protect human rights and the reasons these rights are violated in various societal contexts (Donnelly, 2013).

Moreover, it emphasizes the application of human rights principles to address societal inequities, shaping policy and advocacy efforts to promote human rights in diverse settings.

Potential Career Paths 1. Human Rights Lawyer 2. Policy Advisor 3. International Development Worker 4. Human Rights Educator 5. Activist and Non-Profit Organizer 

22. Development Studies

Development Studies is an interdisciplinary branch zooming into the economic, social, and political dynamics shaping the developing world (Hettne, 2016).

It focuses on issues including poverty reduction, gender equity, sustainable development , and governance.

Development studies investigates the strategies, policies, and practices involved in national and international development efforts (Sumner & Tribe, 2014).

By integrating theory and practice, this discipline aims to promote social justice and economic advancement in less developed regions.

Potential Career Paths 1. Development Worker 2. Policy Analyst 3. International Consultant 4. Foreign Service Officer 5. Sustainable Development Advisor 

23. Environmental Sociology

Environmental Sociology studies the reciprocal relationship between societies and their natural environments (Dunlap & Brulle, 2015).

It assesses the environmental implication of societal practices and the effect of environmental changes on societies.

Central themes include how social structures and activities contribute to or can help mitigate environmental problems, and how these environmental changes affect societal dynamics (Bell, 2018).

Ultimately, environmental sociology informs policy that needs to reconcile the tensions between sustaining ecological systems and fulfilling societal needs.

Potential Career Paths 1. Environmental Consultant 2. Conservation Strategist 3. Urban Planner 4. Policy Developer 5. Environmental Advocate 

24. Peace and Conflict Studies

Peace and Conflict Studies delves into the causes of conflict and the processes through which peace can be achieved (Galtung & Fischer, 2013).

It probes into dynamics of peace, conflict, violence, and resolution using interdisciplinary approaches.

The exploration of social conflicts, intergroup relations, and peace strategies provides valuable insights to conflict-resolution strategies and peacebuilding efforts (Lederach, 2015).

With an aim to promote harmony, this discipline offers pathways toward conflict resolution and peaceful social structures.

Potential Career Paths 1. Diplomat 2. Mediator/ Conflict Resolution Specialist 3. Humanitarian Worker 4. Non-profit Organization Director 5. International Relations Consultant 

25. Behavioral Economics

Behavioral Economics integrates psychological and sociological insights into economic analysis to better predict human decision-making behaviors (Dhami, 2016).

It examines how cognitive biases, emotions, and social factors can deviate individuals away from the rational choices predicted by traditional economics.

Behavioral economics provides critical insights into understanding and predicting human behavior in both negative (harmful biases or inconsistencies) and positive (pro-social behavior, altruism) contexts (Ariely, 2010).

This discipline’s approach can assist in designing effective policies and interventions for a broad range of societal issues.

Potential Career Paths 1. Behavioral Economist 2. Policy Advisor 3. Market Research Analyst 4. Financial Planner 5. User Experience Researcher 

The study of social sciences can help students to develop deep and nuanced understandings of social phenomena and learn to approach social issues with intellectual rigor, critical insights, and academic skepticism (Brownstein-Evans et al., 2015). Overall, the social sciences can be considerably transformative both for individuals and society.

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Erikson P., & Murphy L.D.(2022) A History Of Anthropological Theory.University Of Toronto Press.

Fiske S.T.(2014)Social Beings:Core Motives In Social Psychology.Wiley. 

Franz B.,& Boas A.(2020) Race: Science And Politics.Routledge.

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Grossberg L., Nelson C.,Treichler P. (2020) Cultural Studies. Routledge.

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Hall S., Evans J.,& Nixon S.(2020) Representation.Cultural Representations And Signifying Practices.Sage Publications Inc.

Henrich J., & Gil-White F.J.(2001). The Evolution Of Prestige : Freely Conferred Deference As A Mechanism For Enhancing The Benefits Of Cultural Transmission.Taylor & Francis .

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Hubbard P., Kitchin R. (2010). Key Thinkers On Space And Place.Sage.

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Kellner D., Hepp A. (2019). Transnationalizing The Public Sphere: A Critique.Linköping University Electronic Press.

King, R., & Pardo-Cuellar, R. (2016). The policy relevance of the social sciences. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 228-235.

Knox P.L, Pinch S. (2020) Urban Social Geography: An Introduction.Pearson Education Limited.

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Lorber J., Farrell S. (2011). The Social Construction Of Gender . Sage Publications.

Mankiw G.N., Reis R.(2018) Principles Of Economics.Cengage Learning.

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The Critical Turkey

Essay Writing Hacks for the Social Sciences

What Should Be in a Social Science Essay? Fundamentals and Essential Techniques

This blogpost is also available as a PDF download , so it can be stored on your desktop and used as a checklist before submitting your essay.

The following is a condensed overview of the most important features of social science essay writing. Its aim is to cut through the noise, and focus on the most essential (and important) elements of essay writing. Read it carefully, and use it as a check-list once you have completed your essay.

Before we get into the details, however, be aware: The purpose of writing essays in the social and political sciences is not so much to just demonstrate your knowledge. Rather, it is about applying this knowledge, using it to make a well-informed, well-reasoned, independently-reflected argument that is based on verified (and verifiable) evidence. What should be in an essay, and how you should write it, is all informed by this purpose.

What’s in an Essay?

The main focus of an academic essay, article or book is to address a research or essay question. Therefore, make sure you have read the essay question carefully, think about what aspects of the topic you need to address, and organize the essay accordingly. Your essay should have three parts:

• Introduction
• Provide context to the question. Be specific (not ‘since the dawn of time, social scientists have been arguing…’, but ‘one of the key debates in the study of revolutions revolves around…’, ideally providing references to the key authors of said debate).
• It is almost always a good idea to formulate an argument – an arguable statement – in relation to the essay question (e.g. if the question is ‘Evaluate Weber and Marx’s accounts of capitalism’, an argument could be ‘I am going to argue that Weber is most insightful on X, but Marx is important for Y’). This builds a nice critical element into your essay, your own take on things, going beyond merely describing what others have written.
• Essay plan: Tell the reader about the points you are going to cover, and the order in which you are going to do this (e.g. ‘First, the essay looks at…, second… third…’ etc.). Think of it as a roadmap to the essay.
• Define key concepts as necessary for understanding. Do not use general dictionaries, as they often contain notions that social scientists try to challenge. Use definitions from the readings, and from sociological dictionaries.
• Length: Intro should be between 5 to 10%, and no more than about 10 per cent of the overall word count.
• Main Part / Body
• The structure of the essay body is informed by the research/essay question: What points do you need to include in order to address the question? What sub-questions are there to the big question? Concentrate on the ‘need-to-knows’ rather than the ‘nice-to-knows’ .
• The order in which you arrange these points depends on what makes the most convincing line of argument. This depends on the essay question, but as a rule of thumb you want to build up your argument, from the basics to the more elaborate points, from the weaker to the stronger, from what contradicts your argument to what supports it.
• The different points should be addressed in appropriate depth. Make sure you explain not just what something is, but also how it works, and use examples and illustration.
• There should be a coherent thread running through the essay and connecting the various points to one another and the overall argument. Indicate these connections in strategic places with appropriate signposting. These signpostings should also help you develop your argument as you proceed.
• Excellent essays often raise counter-arguments to the argument presented, and then provide arguments against those counter-arguments. Think about why and how someone might disagree about what you are saying, and how you would respond to them.
• Use peer-reviewed academic sources and present evidence for the points you make, using references, reliable statistics, examples etc. Any opinion you express should be built on reliable evidence and good reasoning.
• What, finally, is your answer to the question? Bring the various strings of the essay together, summarize them briefly in the context of the essay question, and round off by connecting to the bigger discussion that the essay question is part of. It is usually a good idea to have a differentiated conclusion, in which you e.g. agree with a statement to a certain extent or under specific circumstances (and explain which and why), but disagree with some other aspects of it, rather than making undifferentiated black-or-white statements. You can also contextualise your argument with your ideas from the introduction. It is normally not a good idea to introduce new material in the conclusion. You are wrapping up here, and rounding off, not starting new discussions.
• Conclusion should be about, and no longer than, 10 per cent of the overall word count.

Notes on Writing Style

• Find the right balance between formal and informal. Avoid being too informal and conversational on the one hand. But also don’t use overly convoluted and complicated language, as it makes your writing inaccessible, and can lead to a lack of clarity. You may at times encounter academic writing that seems deliberately obscure or overcomplicated, but those are not examples you should try to emulate.
• Clarity and specificity should indeed be a top priority. Are the words you are using expressing what you want to express? Is it clear who specifically is doing what or saying what? Pay attention to this when proofreading the essay. Could someone understand this differently? Avoid ambiguities.
• Key concepts should be clearly defined and  used throughout the essay in the way you defined them. Choose the definitions that are most useful for your discussion.
• Avoid hyperbole (don’t do ‘shocking statistics’ or ‘dire consequences’ etc.).

Notes on the Writing Process

• Proofreading: When you are first writing, don’t think of it as the final product, but treat it as a first draft. Go through several drafts until you are happy with it. At a minimum, proofread the entire essay once or twice. Don’t be perfectionist when you start out, as you can always come back and improve on whatever you’ve written.
• Small steps: Focussing on the small, concrete steps of your writing process rather than constantly thinking of the big task at hand will help you feel in control.
• Procrastination: Feeling overwhelmed, as well as being too perfectionist, are among the leading causes for procrastination. The two previous points should therefore help you address this issue as well. Don’t be too harsh on yourself when you do procrastinate – almost everyone does it to some extent .
• Over the years, keep addressing areas you want to improve on, and keep looking for information. Search online, for example ‘how to cite a book chapter in Harvard Sage’, ‘developing an argument’, ‘ using quotations ’, ‘memory techniques’, ‘how to read with speed’, ‘understanding procrastination’, or ‘ what does peer-reviewed mean ’. There is plenty of information, and some seriously good advice out there. See what works for you. Read the feedback you get on your writing, and incorporate it into your next essay.

Final Thoughts

Essay Writing skills are good skills to have in any situation (except maybe in a zombie apocalypse). They will make the studying process easier over time, and hopefully also more fun. But in a wider sense, they are general skills of critical engagement with the world around you, and will help you filter and prioritise the overload of information you are confronted with on an everyday basis. In that sense, they might actually even be helpful in a zombie apocalypse.

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2.1 Sociology as a Social Science

Learning objectives.

• Explain what is meant by saying that sociology is a social science.
• Describe the difference between a generalization and a law in scientific research.
• List the sources of knowledge on which people rely for their understanding of social reality and explain why the knowledge gained from these sources may sometimes be faulty.
• List the basic steps of the scientific method.

Like anthropology, economics, political science, and psychology, sociology is a social science. All these disciplines use research to try to understand various aspects of human thought and behavior. Although this chapter naturally focuses on sociological research methods, much of the discussion is also relevant for research in the other social and behavioral sciences.

When we say that sociology is a social science, we mean that it uses the scientific method to try to understand the many aspects of society that sociologists study. An important goal is to yield generalizations —general statements regarding trends among various dimensions of social life. We discussed many such generalizations in Chapter 1 “Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” : men are more likely than women to commit suicide, young people were more likely to vote for Obama than McCain in 2008, and so forth. A generalization is just that: a statement of a tendency, rather than a hard-and-fast law. For example, the statement that men are more likely than women to commit suicide does not mean that every man commits suicide and no woman commits suicide. It means only that men have a higher suicide rate, even though most men, of course, do not commit suicide. Similarly, the statement that young people were more likely to vote for Obama than for McCain in 2008 does not mean that all young people voted for Obama; it means only that they were more likely than not to do so.

A generalization regarding the 2008 election is that young people were more likely to vote for Barack Obama than for John McCain. This generalization does not mean that every young person voted for Obama and no young person voted for McCain; it means only that they were more likely than not to vote for Obama.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY 2.0.

Many people will not fit the pattern of such a generalization, because people are shaped but not totally determined by their social environment. That is both the fascination and the frustration of sociology. Sociology is fascinating because no matter how much sociologists are able to predict people’s behavior, attitudes, and life chances, many people will not fit the predictions. But sociology is frustrating for the same reason. Because people can never be totally explained by their social environment, sociologists can never completely understand the sources of their behavior, attitudes, and life chances.

In this sense, sociology as a social science is very different from a discipline such as physics, in which known laws exist for which no exceptions are possible. For example, we call the law of gravity a law because it describes a physical force that exists on the earth at all times and in all places and that always has the same result. If you were to pick up the book you are now reading—or the computer or other device on which you are reading or listening to—and then let go, the object you were holding would definitely fall to the ground. If you did this a second time, it would fall a second time. If you did this a billion times, it would fall a billion times. In fact, if there were even one time out of a billion that your book or electronic device did not fall down, our understanding of the physical world would be totally revolutionized, the earth could be in danger, and you could go on television and make a lot of money.

People’s attitudes, behavior, and life chances are influenced but not totally determined by many aspects of their social environment.

redjar – Cheering – CC BY-SA 2.0.

For better or worse, people are less predictable than this object that keeps falling down. Sociology can help us understand the social forces that affect our behavior, beliefs, and life chances, but it can only go so far. That limitation conceded, sociological understanding can still go fairly far toward such an understanding, and it can help us comprehend who we are and what we are by helping us first understand the profound yet often subtle influence of our social backgrounds on so many things about us.

Although sociology as a discipline is very different from physics, it is not as different as one might think from this and the other “hard” sciences. Like these disciplines, sociology as a social science relies heavily on systematic research that follows the standard rules of the scientific method. We return to these rules and the nature of sociological research later in this chapter. Suffice it to say here that careful research is essential for a sociological understanding of people, social institutions, and society.

At this point a reader might be saying, “I already know a lot about people. I could have told you that young people voted for Obama. I already had heard that men have a higher suicide rate than women. Maybe our social backgrounds do influence us in ways I had not realized, but what beyond that does sociology have to tell me?”

Students often feel this way because sociology deals with matters already familiar to them. Just about everyone has grown up in a family, so we all know something about it. We read a lot in the media about topics like divorce and health care, so we all already know something about these, too. All this leads some students to wonder if they will learn anything in their introduction to sociology course that they do not already know.

How Do We Know What We Think We Know?

Let’s consider this issue a moment: how do we know what we think we know? Our usual knowledge and understanding of social reality come from at least five sources: (a) personal experience; (b) common sense; (c) the media (including the Internet); (d) “expert authorities,” such as teachers, parents, and government officials; and (e) tradition. These are all important sources of our understanding of how the world “works,” but at the same time their value can often be very limited.

Personal Experience

Let’s look at these sources separately by starting with personal experience. Although personal experiences are very important, not everyone has the same personal experience. This fact casts some doubt on the degree to which our personal experiences can help us understand everything about a topic and the degree to which we can draw conclusions from them that necessarily apply to other people. For example, say you grew up in Maine or Vermont, where more than 98% of the population is white. If you relied on your personal experience to calculate how many people of color live in the country, you would conclude that almost everyone in the United States is also white, which certainly is not true. As another example, say you grew up in a family where your parents had the proverbial perfect marriage, as they loved each other deeply and rarely argued. If you relied on your personal experience to understand the typical American marriage, you would conclude that most marriages were as good as your parents’ marriage, which, unfortunately, also is not true. Many other examples could be cited here, but the basic point should be clear: although personal experience is better than nothing, it often offers only a very limited understanding of social reality other than our own.

Common Sense

If personal experience does not help that much when it comes to making predictions, what about common sense? Although common sense can be very helpful, it can also contradict itself. For example, which makes more sense, haste makes waste or he or she who hesitates is lost ? How about birds of a feather flock together versus opposites attract ? Or two heads are better than one versus too many cooks spoil the broth ? Each of these common sayings makes sense, but if sayings that are opposite of each other both make sense, where does the truth lie? Can common sense always be counted on to help us understand social life? Slightly more than five centuries ago, everyone “knew” the earth was flat—it was just common sense that it had to be that way. Slightly more than a century ago, some of the leading physicians in the United States believed that women should not go to college because the stress of higher education would disrupt their menstrual cycles (Ehrenreich & English, 1979). If that bit of common sense(lessness) were still with us, many of the women reading this book would not be in college.

During the late 19th century, a common belief was that women should not go to college because the stress of higher education would disrupt their menstrual cycles. This example shows that common sense is often incorrect.

Steven Depolo – Female Black College Graduates Cap Gown – CC BY 2.0.

Still, perhaps there are some things that make so much sense they just have to be true; if sociology then tells us that they are true, what have we learned? Here is an example of such an argument. We all know that older people—those 65 or older—have many more problems than younger people. First, their health is generally worse. Second, physical infirmities make it difficult for many elders to walk or otherwise move around. Third, many have seen their spouses and close friends pass away and thus live lonelier lives than younger people. Finally, many are on fixed incomes and face financial difficulties. All of these problems indicate that older people should be less happy than younger people. If a sociologist did some research and then reported that older people are indeed less happy than younger people, what have we learned? The sociologist only confirmed the obvious.

The trouble with this confirmation of the obvious is that the “obvious” turns out not to be true after all. In the 2008 General Social Survey, which was given to a random sample of Americans, respondents were asked, “Taken all together, how would you say things are these days? Would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?” Respondents aged 65 or older were actually slightly more likely than those younger than 65 to say they were very happy! About 40% of older respondents reported feeling this way, compared with only 30% of younger respondents (see Figure 2.1 “Age and Happiness” ). What we all “knew” was obvious from common sense turns out not to have been so obvious after all.

Figure 2.1 Age and Happiness

Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2008.

The news media often oversimplify complex topics and in other respects provide a misleading picture of social reality. As one example, news coverage sensationalizes violent crime and thus suggests that such crime is more common than it actually is.

Wikiemedia Commons – CC BY-SA 2.0.

If personal experience and common sense do not always help that much, how about the media? We learn a lot about current events and social and political issues from the Internet, television news, newspapers and magazines, and other media sources. It is certainly important to keep up with the news, but media coverage may oversimplify complex topics or even distort what the best evidence from systematic research seems to be telling us. A good example here is crime. Many studies show that the media sensationalize crime and suggest there is much more violent crime than there really is. For example, in the early 1990s, the evening newscasts on the major networks increased their coverage of murder and other violent crimes, painting a picture of a nation where crime was growing rapidly. The reality was very different, however, as crime was actually declining. The view that crime was growing was thus a myth generated by the media (Kurtz, 1997).

Expert Authorities

Expert authorities, such as teachers, parents, and government officials, are a fourth source that influences our understanding of social reality. We learn much from our teachers and parents and perhaps from government officials, but, for better or worse, not all of what we learn from these sources about social reality is completely accurate. Teachers and parents do not always have the latest research evidence at their fingertips, and various biases may color their interpretation of any evidence with which they are familiar. As many examples from U.S. history illustrate, government officials may simplify or even falsify the facts. We should perhaps always listen to our teachers and parents and maybe even to government officials, but that does not always mean they give us a true, complete picture of social reality.

A final source that influences our understanding of social reality is tradition, or long-standing ways of thinking about the workings of society. Tradition is generally valuable, because a society should always be aware of its roots. However, traditional ways of thinking about social reality often turn out to be inaccurate and incomplete. For example, traditional ways of thinking in the United States once assumed that women and people of color were biologically and culturally inferior to men and whites. Although some Americans continue to hold these beliefs, these traditional assumptions have given way to more egalitarian assumptions. As we shall also see in later chapters, most sociologists certainly do not believe that women and people of color are biologically and culturally inferior.

If we cannot always trust personal experience, common sense, the media, expert authorities, and tradition to help us understand social reality, then the importance of systematic research gathered by sociology and the other social sciences becomes apparent.

The Scientific Method

As noted earlier, because sociology is a social science, sociologists follow the rules of the scientific method in their research. Most readers probably learned these rules in science classes in high school, college, or both. The scientific method is followed in the natural, physical, and social sciences to help yield the most accurate and reliable conclusions possible, especially ones that are free of bias or methodological errors. An overriding principle of the scientific method is that research should be conducted as objectively as possible. Researchers are often passionate about their work, but they must take care not to let the findings they expect and even hope to uncover affect how they do their research. This in turn means that they must not conduct their research in a manner that “helps” achieve the results they expect to find. Such bias can happen unconsciously, and the scientific method helps reduce the potential for this bias as much as possible.

This potential is arguably greater in the social sciences than in the natural and physical sciences. The political views of chemists and physicists typically do not affect how an experiment is performed and how the outcome of the experiment is interpreted. In contrast, researchers in the social sciences, and perhaps particularly in sociology, often have strong feelings about the topics they are studying. Their social and political beliefs may thus influence how they perform their research on these topics and how they interpret the results of this research. Following the scientific method helps reduce this possible influence.

Figure 2.2 The Scientific Method

As you probably learned in a science class, the scientific method involves these basic steps: (a) formulating a hypothesis, (b) measuring and gathering data to test the hypothesis, (c) analyzing these data, and (d) drawing appropriate conclusions (see Figure 2.2 “The Scientific Method” ). In following the scientific method, sociologists are no different from their colleagues in the natural and physical sciences or the other social sciences, even though their research is very different in other respects. The next section discusses the stages of the sociological research process in more detail.

Key Takeaways

• As a social science, sociology presents generalizations, or general statements regarding trends among various dimensions of social life. There are always many exceptions to any generalization, because people are not totally determined by their social environment.
• Our knowledge and understanding of social reality usually comes from five sources: (a) personal experience, (b) common sense, (c) the media, (d) expert authorities, and (e) tradition. Sometimes and perhaps often, the knowledge gained from these sources is faulty.
• Like research in other social sciences, sociological research follows the scientific method to ensure the most accurate and reliable results possible. The basic steps of the scientific method include (a) formulating a hypothesis, (b) measuring and gathering data to test the hypothesis, (c) analyzing these data, and (d) drawing appropriate conclusions.

For Your Review

• Think of a personal experience you have had that might have some sociological relevance. Write a short essay in which you explain how this experience helped you understand some aspect of society. Your essay should also consider whether the understanding gained from your personal experience is generalizable to other people and situations.
• Why do you think the media sometimes provide a false picture of social reality? Does this problem result from honest mistakes, or is the media’s desire to attract more viewers, listeners, and readers to blame?

Ehrenreich, B., & English, D. (1979). For her own good: 150 years of the experts’ advice to women . Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.

Kurtz, H. (1997, August 12). The crime spree on network news. The Washington Post , p. D1.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Social Science Theory and How it relates to Social Phenomena Essay

How has the mass media influenced gender perceptions, comparison of the research methods to those in the natural sciences, reference list.

The social sciences have adopted the scientific principles of natural or physical sciences such as mathematics for a long time. Social science perspectives rely on the scientific methods of natural sciences such as sampling, observation and other means in data analysis, data interpretation and chiefly, data collection.

Social scientists use a social scientific perspective and social theories to hypothesize about the world around them and how it has an impact on society at large (Jones, 2003).

It is therefore in the light of this that the topic of gender and mass media must be examined in detail to determine that it is of social importance to individuals, communities and society. The question therefore is how does the mass media influence gender perceptions?

The question above has been a sociological issue for a long time. TV, newspapers and mostly the internet have various depictions of different genders and their social roles (gender stereotyping). The mass media also portray the female gender as sexual objects or as the weaker sex in general because it has become widely believed that it is so.

From music videos to epic movies, women have been portrayed as the helpless weaklings who can only serve the purpose of catering to the whims of their male counterparts to the dancers who dance half-naked and in erotic manners as the men look on in bewildered amusement.

For example, the Video Phone music video by Lady Gaga and Beyonce’ This is fast changing in this dynamic world where feminism, rights for women and emancipation of women is a common aspect of most of the modern world ( that is the First World Countries and the some developing countries).’

According to a research paper by McConnell (2008), the media also has a significant role in stereotyping along the lines of gender. She postulates that the media is a tool for perpetuating gender stereotypes that mostly target females. These ideas become so prevalent that they go without question and even force some people to adopt these characteristics that they believe are the required norm.

Movie characters, celebrities and sports personality have become the models of what the physical appearance of most women should be. It has even been extended to what they wear and how they wear it. Their works out regimes and diets have been splashed all over tabloids and reality shows as the “holy book” in weight loss programs or “having the perfect body.

This can have such a negative impact on the feeble and malleable minds of most teens such that they begin to doubt themselves and essentially starve themselves so that they can look like Angelina Jolie. This may have the disastrous effects of eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia and in the worst-case scenario, death.

Men are not spared either. The ideal man should have the ideal body that is tan, tall, muscular or athletic and possess the ‘non-balding gene’. If a man does not achieve these requirements then he feels he may be doomed to loneliness as no one finds him attractive. The statistics of men having eating disorders and going for plastic surgery sessions is on the rise (McConnell, 2008).

Our society is losing a sense of social perspective in this narrow view of physical measures of attractiveness. “By focusing too intensely on the physical, our society risks losing sight of the fuller sense of what people are, and what makes us truly beautiful” (McConnell, 2008).

Social scientific methods in social sciences entail testing and proving hypothesis. “The basic technique of this method is called scientific observation, which is a precise systematic collection of data under controlled conditions by trained observers” (Perry & Perry, 2003, p. 4)

This question of media and gender can be analyzed scientifically through 3 research method problems:

What data can be used to quantify the influence of media on gender especially in the portrayal of ideal types of physical attractiveness?

The methods that can be adopted to provide data include sampling and experimentation on a group of impressionable youth. However, when it comes to distinguishing the applicable data, social scientists can opt to look at medical reports and statistics on the cases of eating disorders, plastic surgery and fitness regimes and work out plans as well as the dieting programs that are popular. The scientific analysis entails defining the problem as physical attractiveness in the media.

Next, the hypothesis that these two are correlated is tested to be proven true by analyzing the collected data available on the topic. This is followed by drawing conclusions and recommendations based on the data through logical deductions of the the future holds for people with eating disorders and how media can change or elevate the numbers, and finally performing experimental tests on the medical data to affirm findings, predictions and conclusion (Moulton & Schiferres, 1960).

What is the reason for mass media perpetuating gender stereotypes and sexually objectifying women?

The media usually perpetuates these views because when it comes down to it, “what the audience wants, the audience gets.” The media operates on what the audience wants to see because it generates rating which translate into money in advertising. The social scientific analysis involves defining how the media thinks and its role of perpetuating stereotypes to achieve ratings.

It can therefore be hypothesized that gender stereotypes are only prevalent because we indirectly allow it to permeate societal views by boosting ratings of stereotypical shows. The conclusion and recommendations based on the findings by logical reasoning can be made as to whether this will end if society stops glorifying these stereotypes as well. Lastly, an external researcher should retest the hypothesis through a series of experiments to determine the likelihood of this scenario (Scientific Method, n.d.).

Why are men not targeted as much in the media or why are the perspectives towards them mostly positive?

We mostly live in a patriarchal society. Most of the mass media do not sexually parade men on screens or magazines as objects. So why is media so imbalanced when it comes to the views of males? The researcher will identify the topic of media and gender bias. The next step is to formulate a hypothesis of the role of generational cultural beliefs on influencing perceptions of gender, which is verified through data analysis and collection.

The researcher will use this hypothesis to make conclusions and recommendations about the how this could change in the future with the rise of feminism and lastly, the social scientific analysis will involve retesting of these hypothesis and predictions to ascertain that these facts are empirically true and are applicable to society (Zeiger, n.d.).

In the natural sciences, the scientific method involves these four steps:

• Observing and describing the phenomenon or group of phenomena that encompass the subject matter.
• Formulating a hypothesis to explain the phenomena identified in step one. For example” in physics, the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation” (Wolfs, n.d.).
• Using the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena that relate to the subject, or to predict the results of new observations from a quantitative aspect. (McComas, 1998).
• Performing tests and retests of the phenomena observed through experiments. This is usually done by several independent experimenters and involves setting up proper experiments in a controlled environment (Wolfs, n.d.).

According to Barrow (1991), the main aim of scientific analysis is the predictive power of the subsequent theory, which is the “ability to get more out of the theory than you put in.”

In the natural sciences, the aim is to provide empirical evidence of phenomena based on these methods also adopted in social scientific perspectives with the difference being in the subject of study (Godfrey-Smith, 2003).

In the formulated questions above, the research methods include the scientific methods generally applied to the natural sciences. The four steps of identification of topic, hypothesis formulation and subsequent studies in form of sampling, conclusions and recommendations and finally availing research for testing is all an aspect of social scientific analysis.

A social science method does not fully rely on the natural science method as it incorporates data that may not have been found to be empirically true such as interviews on the perspectives of sexual objectifying of women. The idea that rationality can be used in verification of the topic also shows that natural science scientific methods tend to rely on consensus on how to solve grey matters in the research subject (Meyer, 1999).

Barrow, J. D. (1991). Theories of Everything. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.

Godfrey-Smith, P. (2003), Theory and Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science , Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Jones, P. (2003). Introducing Social Theory . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Blackwell.

McComas, W. (Ed.). (1998). The Principal Elements of the Nature of Science: Dispelling the Myths, The Nature of Science in Science Education (pp. 53–70). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

McConell, M. (2008). Media and Gender Stereotyping. Web.

Meyer, P. (1999). An Essay in Philosophy of Social Sciences. Web.

Moulton F.R. & Schiferres J.J. (1960). (Eds.). The Autobiography of Science (2 nd ed.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Perry, J.A. & Perry, E. (2008). Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Scientific Method in Social Sciences . (n.d.). Web.

Wolfs, F. (n.d.). Introduction to Scientific Method. Web.

Zeiger, P. (n.d.). Scientific Method in Social Sciences. Web.

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• Gender & The Body
• Systemic Discrimination/Inequality
• The Implications of Immigration
• Introduction to Psychology: Rating Attractiveness: Consensus among Men, not Women, Study Finds
• Representations of Global Femininity and Masculinity in Contemporary Media
• Moral Panic: Nudism or Naturism
• Challenges of the Media in Representing Gender
• Changing the Conflict in the Workplace Into Cooperation
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• Chicago (A-D)
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