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Intellectual Development Through Adulthood and the Effects of Age on the Functions of Memory

Last updated 23 Sept 2022

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In this study note we highlight some key features of intellectual development through adulthood.

Early Adulthood

During early adulthood, individuals continue to develop logical thinking . This is now applied (alongside skills and knowledge) into the workplace, where they are tasked to problem solve and make decisions about more complex situations.

Middle Adulthood

As people move into middle adulthood, their ability to retrieve information may be more difficult. There is some dispute as to whether our memory is starting to decline (where did I put my phone) or whether our brain starts to focus on other information.

How Age Affects the Functions of Memory in Later Adulthood

• Memory loss that occurs during later adulthood can result in difficulty recalling and learning new information.
• In most cases this is not clinical memory loss, but what scientists refer to as lapses in memory function.
• Daily activities such as completing word and number puzzles help to keep the brain active and healthy.
• Severe issues with recall and remembering may indicate cognitive decline and types of dementia that would require further testing by specialists.
• Scientists have discovered that throughout adulthood new brain cells are produced within the hippocampus. This is the areas of the brain that is involved in learning, memory and emotions.
• Intellectual development
• Later adulthood
• Early adulthood
• Middle adulthood

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11.4 Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify the cognitive capabilities that develop during early adulthood
• Describe the developmental changes in social cognition associated with early adulthood
• Describe the contextual and cultural factors that influence the development of early adult cognitive capabilities

Devon finished a pipefitting apprenticeship a year ago and is now living fully on their own for the first time. They have just been offered a position managing a small group of people at work. They are excited to be promoted but anxious about overseeing others. It was challenging enough to prioritize their personal life and budget for food, bills, and rent. Now they have to learn how to prioritize projects, make major decisions at work, and delegate parts of each project to those in their work group, on top of making sure they are able to get their work done.

Some of the cognitive tasks and milestones during early adulthood include taking on more responsibilities, finding employment or a career (which may include attending college or a trade school), attaining abstract thought, increasing awareness of our own limitations and strengths, honing decision-making skills, becoming fully independent (including financially independent), being less swayed by peer pressure, and adjusting to changes in relationships with family. Developing and honing new cognitive skills during this time is essential for solving the kinds of complex problems we will encounter for the rest of our lives. Fortunately, our brain continues to develop in ways that make these tasks easier.

Changes in the Brain during Early Adulthood

Just like the rest of the body, the brain reaches maturity and peak functioning during early adulthood. However, we continue to develop new synapse s—a lifelong process—and myelination of our axons continues, particularly in the prefrontal cortex (Dvorak et al., 2021; Hochberg & Konner, 2020; Kwon et al., 2020; Mills et al., 2021), throughout the lifespan. These changes in the brain within the area of the prefrontal cortex are mostly completed by age 25 (citation), and are associated with improved cognitive functioning, specifically in the efficacy and speed of processing and performance of higher-order functions like planning, organizing, solving problems, and resisting impulses (Hochberg & Konner, 2020; Kwon et al., 2020).

In addition to the development within the prefrontal cortex, the process of synaptic pruning continues until the mid-20’s. We also know from research that , with the prefrontal cortex is the last area where synaptic pruning finally winds down within the brain (Cohen et al., 2016; Dennis et al., 2013). These two processes, final synaptic pruning and the continued myelination of nerve fibers in this area, helps increase the efficiency of signals between neurons within the brain. Instead of processing information locally, the brain begins to connect more distant regions, allowing information to be processed in many areas (Hochberg & Konner, 2020; Taber-Thomas & Pérez-Edgar, 2015). Once these connections have been well established, both impulse control and emotional control are enhanced (Simpson, 2018; Wood et al., 2017). Thus, these brain changes help young adults become better at making decisions, delaying gratification, solving problems, assessing risk, prioritizing, and regulating their emotions. Improvements don’t happen all at once. For example, research conducted by Cohen and colleagues (2016) investigated differences in brain functioning between adolescents (ages 13–17), emerging adults ages 18–21, and ages 22–25. The prefrontal cortices of the 18–21-year-olds functioned more like those of adolescents than of the 22–25-year-olds on a task assessing inhibition of a behavior. These results also support Arnett’s theory that emerging adulthood is a discrete developmental state and involves gradual progression rather than an abrupt transition.

Intersections and Contexts

Brain of emerging adults: impulse control and risk-taking behaviors.

Although people can act impulsively regardless of age, such as calling in sick for a week to attend a once-in-a-lifetime music festival or changing one's choice of college major on a whim, this type of behavior occurs more frequently in emerging adulthood than later in adulthood (Brodbeck et al., 2013). Life experience, or lack of, plays some role in the differences in risk-taking and impulsive behaviors between emerging adults and adults. However, these differences are also likely the result of changes in the frontal lobes and other brain areas (Brodbeck et al., 2013). Changes in the brain help it shift from a priority of developing skills and obtaining knowledge about the world to actually using that knowledge and skills to live as an adult.

Unfortunately, this means that while people are exploring options and making decisions more independently, their brain is still in transition, and thus, people may not always make the best decisions. Within the brain, areas that are involved in impulsive behaviors, including risk-taking and decision-making, are also involved in emotional regulation, including impulse control and emotional control. Research has found that people who had difficulty with emotional regulation, based on clinical tests and self-report are prone to more impulsive behaviors related to substance misuse and gambling (Schreiber et al., 2012). Thus, until refinements within these areas are complete, people may make impulsive decisions that bring immediate rewards instead of making decisions based on long-term rewards (Parr et al., 2022).

Another contributor to impulsivity may be the neurotransmitter dopamine. Children, teens, and adults of different ages have different amounts of dopamine in their brains, with dopamine levels decreasing as we age (Lee & Kim, 2022). Similarly, children, teens, and adults of different ages aren’t all equally good at controlling impulses and making goal-based decisions, with older adults being better at this than other age groups, including younger adults. However, some younger adults appear to have less trouble with this than others, suggesting that individual differences may also be at work. Having less dopamine as we age may help us, along with our increased cognitive skills and personal experiences, to better resist impulsive behaviors (Parr et al., 2022).

Early Adult Cognitive Characteristics

Some of the cognitive abilities that develop or become refined through both physiological changes in the brain and experience in daily life are reflective thought, crystallized intelligence, post-formal thought, and dialectical thinking. Up until now, a lot of our coverage of cognitive development has focused on Piaget’s theory and stages. Piaget believed that formal operational thought was the last stage in our cognitive development, but is this actually the case? Do you currently have the same cognitive skills and reason the same way you did when you were 14? Put another way, do you currently have the same problems and life circumstances you had when you were 14?

Researchers since Piaget have proposed the existence of post-formal thought , a stage beyond formal operations that is more flexible, complex, and capable of recognizing more than one objectively correct answer to problems (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1993; Sinnott, 1998; Griffin et al., 2009). Though adolescents in the formal operational stage can easily think hypothetically, they lack experience with the world and are often unable to consider as many possibilities as adults can. Adults are better able to predict likely outcomes or consequences, combining abstract thought and logic with intuition and life experience. This ability to think of potential outcomes is one of the hallmarks of post-formal thought, and it extends Piaget’s ideas about formal operations to the unique skills and abilities developed during emerging adulthood and adulthood. Thus, it helps people think critically, accept contradictions and ambiguity, and understand situations they’ve never experienced. Table 11.4 shows some key characteristics of post-formal thought and how they may be applied in real life.

In young adulthood, we continue to use many of the cognitive abilities we acquired earlier in life. Skills like memory, perspective taking, and problem solving are still important, although we may use them for different tasks. For example, we no longer just use memory to recall information—we also use it to apply information, remembering not only facts but also how those facts can be used. Nurses must know more than what different medications do; they also have to know how medications interact, how and when they should be administered, and what a typical dosage is. This allows them to detect possible interactions and errors and provide better patient care. We also use existing problem-solving skills to address challenges of adult life, such as what to do in case of a flat tire or how to go about finding an internship for the summer.

During early adulthood, people increase their problem-solving and decision-making skills, become aware that the world is full of gray areas, and recognize that little in life is absolute. They’re better able to see that historical, cultural, and social factors play a role in events, and that different people might view the same event differently due to these factors. Thus they gain a deeper understanding of relativism , or the idea that cultural standards, values, and ethics are a product of the time and cultural context within which they developed, and what is proper, relevant, or true for one individual may not be for another. They also increase their knowledge base, gain more experience with the world and with interacting with others, become more flexible, and hone skills such as planning, prioritizing, strategizing, time management, self-control, and emotional regulation. Table 11.5 lists some cognitive skills and how they develop during early adulthood. Several types of cognitive skills improve or peak at this life stage.

Dialectical Thinking and Reflective Thought

One form of cognitive processing refined during early adulthood is dialectical thinking , the ability to remain practical, flexible, and open to the multiple factors and solutions in a given situation. Where adolescents think in absolute terms, seeing something as either good or bad, adults are more likely to realize life is full of gray areas and that an event might be a “‘double-edged” sword or a “blessing in disguise”. For example, breaking up with a romantic partner may result in someone finding a more fulfilling relationship or being able to pursue goals they’d previously put on hold. This ability to combine two opposing points of view is at the core of dialectical thinking ( Figure 11.18 ).

Solving adult problems also requires us to constantly consider many sources of information. Reflective thought relies on logical thought processes such as continuous, active evaluation of information and beliefs using evidence and past experiences. It allows us to continually question facts, draw inferences, and make connections between different types of information (Immordino-Yang et al., 2019). It emerges between 20 and 25 years of age, coinciding with brain myelination. Higher education may also stimulate and hone reflective thinking (Sherman, 2021), as students often need to relate new information to old, think through hypothetical situations, and apply their knowledge and skills to solve unfamiliar problems and issues. For example, when learning about the country of Morocco, which is located in Northern Africa near Spain, a learner may be surprised to learn of a Middle Eastern country that is so far from the core group of countries typically associated with the Middle East. In addition, the learner will need and have the ability to hypothesize how Middler Eastern culture may take on different aspects given the distance of Morocco from the Middle East, and its close proximity to Western Europe. Similarly, changes in crystallized intelligence also occur and are believed to be mediated by both an individual’s life experiences and, for those pursuing a degree, the college courses they take (Hochberg & Konner, 2020).

Our thinking also becomes more efficient in early adulthood. Heuristic s are mental shortcuts that help us process information more quickly. They frequently simplify a problem or decision point and reduce the time and energy needed to come up with a solution. Because our brains are metabolically “expensive,” meaning they require a lot of energy to function, being efficient when facing mental tasks makes sense. Common heuristics are the familiarity heuristic, affect heuristic, and scarcity heuristic. All have their advantages and their downsides.

The familiarity heuristic makes us feel more comfortable with things or people we have experience with than with those we have yet to experience or meet. Often, we will choose the most comfortable or familiar option, but then we may never know whether the novel thing or person was a better choice. For example, you may buy apples every week because apples are a familiar choice, not considering less familiar fruits like mangoes, even though you might enjoy mangoes more than apples if you tried them.

The affect heuristic causes us to use emotions more than other factors when making a decision. We can also consider this similar to intuition or a “gut instinct”. Decisions we make using the affect heuristic aren’t always bad—for example, a person on a job interview “gets a bad feeling” about the way the employees interact with each other, declines a job offer, and later learns of a hostile environment lawsuit against that company. However, using the affect heuristic can also cause us to make impractical decisions, such as letting our emotions talk us into adopting a rescue dog even though our living arrangements aren’t appropriate for a dog.

Finally, the scarcity heuristic causes us to believe that the rarer or less available something is, the more valuable it is. Advertisers sometimes count on the scarcity heuristic to sell products, telling us that “quantities are limited” and we should “act now”. Unfortunately, this can cause us to waste money on things we don’t really need.

While heuristics can help us use short-cuts to make decisions, they aren’t always the best way to make a decision. An emerging adult might have ideas about what it would be like to live in a big city based on what they've seen in movies and be excited about all the activities to explore and people to meet, but not realize potential drawbacks, such as the high cost of living, traffic, pollution, and so on. Taking the time to think through a decision like moving to a new area should be done rationally and purposefully, not using a heuristic.

Problem Solving and Divergent Thinking

The use of both convergent and divergent thought to solve problems increases during early adulthood. Convergent thought uses a known solution to deal with a problem, whereas divergent thought creates a new solution. Divergent thought is closely associated with creativity because it often leads to “thinking outside the box” or creating multiple potential ways to solve a problem (Runco, 2014). Although they’re different ways of thinking, convergent and divergent thought can be used together. By combining divergent thought processes with reflective thought, and by honing convergent thought processes, people can gain a deeper understanding of a situation or problem and come up with multiple solutions. A college student who wants to make more friends could use divergent thinking to brainstorm all the possible ways they could do that (e.g., joining clubs, playing intramural sports, attending tutoring sessions) and then use convergent thinking to gather more information (e.g., what available clubs there are) and narrow down options based on factors like time commitment, interests, and other characteristics (e.g., the Chemistry Club is only for chemistry majors, rushing a fraternity would be too expensive).

Social Cognition in Early Adulthood

Social cognition is an area of psychology concerned with what people are thinking within social situations. It asks what information we keep about our previous social interactions, how we use this information in future social interactions, and how we interpret the social motives of others. In this section, we’ll consider several aspects of social cognition: Theory of mind, empathy, moral development, and prosocial behavior.

Theory of Mind and Empathy

Like many other cognitive skills, theory of mind appears in early childhood and continues to develop as we grow up. Cognitive theory of mind is the ability to draw conclusions about another person’s intentions and beliefs, and affective theory of mind is the ability to draw conclusions about another person’s feelings. In general, both types of theory of mind improve as we age (Baksh et al., 2021; Kilford & Blakemore, 2020; Velikonja et al., 2019), giving us a better ability to form connections and interact with others. Empathy also develops in early childhood and improves as we mature ( Figure 11.19 ). As with theory of mind, we can consider both cognitive empathy (being able to adopt someone’s point of view) and affective empathy (being able to vicariously experience someone’s emotions). A potentially important component of empathy is our ability to recognize and process faces, including facial displays of emotion. Several studies have indicated that this ability improves from adolescence to emerging adulthood due to maturation of relevant parts of the brain (Gur & Gur, 2016; Kilford & Blakemore, 2020; Tousignant et al., 2016; Velikonja et al., 2019).

Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior

Another theory that touches on social cognition related to our behavior is Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Remember from earlier chapters that in Kohlberg’s theory, emerging adults are more likely than teenagers and children to use postconventional reasoning, considering broader ethical principles such as justice and fairness to make moral decisions. However, Kohlberg’s theory has some limitations, such as ignoring the interpersonal aspects of morality and focusing too much on objective justice instead of the needs of others (Miller et al., 2018). Kohlberg (1969) also felt that men advanced farther than in their moral development and viewed women as deficient in their moral reasoning abilities. These ideas met with criticism from, among others, Carol Gilligan , who was a research assistant of Kohlberg. She consequently developed her own ideas of moral development, arguing that women aren’t deficient in their moral reasoning, but rather just reason differently than men do. Specifically, Gilligan proposed that in their moral reasoning, girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships (Gilligan, 1982). Another criticism of the theory is that Kohlberg’s stories, such as the Heinz dilemma, were culturally biased and did not apply well to all cultures, particularly collectivistic cultures that prioritize interdependence more than independence (Jia & Krettenauer, 2017; Moheghi et al., 2020). Indeed, culture does play a role in cognitive development, as we’ll discover in the next section.

Early adulthood may mean increased moral dilemmas as well as more opportunities to behave in moral ways. Lapsley and colleagues (2023) point out that the moral dilemmas of adult life are often ambiguous and solving them requires considering multiple factors, such as avoiding harm versus doing good, the long-term consequences of the decision, and whether the punishment fits the crime. This maps onto the elements of post-formal thought described earlier. Emerging adults are also faster and more flexible in their moral decision-making than adolescents are (Padilla-Walker, 2016).

Theory of mind, empathy, and moral reasoning can all affect prosocial behavior by giving us more information we can use to help others. When we can both consider other people’s perspectives and identify with them, we can better meet their needs. Being able to consider multiple dimensions of complex moral situations enables us to make decisions that have a better chance of being beneficial. Additionally, in early adulthood we may have more opportunities and more ability to engage in prosocial behavior by, for example, voting or giving a friend a ride somewhere after their car breaks down (Padilla-Walker, 2016).

Link to Learning

How empathic are you? This video gives some interesting perspective on our experience of empathy toward people who are different from us.

Contextual and Cultural Variations in Cognition

People from different cultures approach problems differently, and they value different factors when making decisions. The way an individual forms their identity, and their cultural and societal norms and beliefs, all influence the way they process information and the development of cognitive skills in early adulthood.

Variations in Practical Thinking

In general, collectivistic cultures show a preference for a holistic style of thinking that relies on contextual information, situational attributions, low tolerance for ambiguity, and dislike of competition. Western cultures, on the other hand, tend to be more individualistic and emphasize dispositional (personality) attributions (explanations for behavior), competition, and reliance on absolute facts, with a higher tolerance for ambiguity (Grossman, 2018; Her & Haron, 2016; Rachev & Petkova, 2019). These differences appear to influence some specific aspects of cognition. For example, Rachev and Petkova discovered that Bulgarian business owners were extremely susceptible to the affect heuristic, and attributed this to a collectivistic tendency to prioritize emotional satisfaction over competition; in other words, because emotional factors are so important, they become a primary focus when making decisions (2019). A study comparing Israeli and Taiwanese children ages 4–11 found that the Israeli children demonstrated the scarcity heuristic by age 7, while the Taiwanese children never showed it. The researchers explained this difference in individualistic/collectivistic terms: When an item is viewed as scarce, members of individualistic cultures are more likely to want it because it helps them stand out, but this isn’t a priority for members of individualistic cultures (Diesendruck et al., 2018). While this is child research and not adult research, it provides more support for the idea that cultural factors may influence use of specific cognitive strategies, and that this influence may start well before adulthood.

Culture may also affect views of convergent and divergent thinking as well as creativity. Specifically, collectivistic cultures may prioritize convergent thinking over divergent thinking because it focuses on finding the “right answer” and therefore reducing uncertainty (Her & Haron, 2016). Consistent with this, Paletz and colleagues note that Eastern and Western cultures tend to define creativity somewhat differently; Eastern cultures tend to define creativity in terms of appropriateness to the context of prevailing cultural norms, while Western cultures tend to define it in terms of novelty (2018). This may influence the way people generate solutions to problems. For example, a person from a Western culture may consider all possible solutions to a problem, regardless of how feasible they are, but someone from an Eastern culture may only consider solutions that are practical ( Figure 11.20 ).

Life circumstances other than culture can also affect adult cognition. Research comparing the use of availability heuristics in Italy and Sweden has demonstrated that while residents of both countries use these heuristics, the focus varies depending on what’s most salient to residents of those countries. Specifically, when asked to estimate the likelihood of flood, drought, and wildfires, the respondents rated as more likely the specific events that had occurred in their country most recently (Di Baldassarre et al., 2021). Thus, while the ability to use heuristics is universal, the information that we use to shape our judgments depends on experience.

Variations in Social Cognition

Specific cultural values may affect social cognition. For example, the value of familism , prevalent in Latino culture, emphasizes the importance of helping others and is related to expressed prosocial tendencies (Knight et al., 2016; 2018). A study of college students in India, Japan, and the United States found that the Japanese and American students were more likely to use exchange norm s (either repaying a debt or anticipating future benefit) when deciding whether to help a friend, while Indian students were more likely to use communal norm s (helping with no expectation of reciprocity; Miller et al., 2017). Also, a study comparing European American and Hindu Indian adults found that when evaluating the reasons why a person did something (e.g., didn’t help someone in need), European American participants tended to attribute this behavior to personality characteristics (e.g., being selfish), while Hindu Indian participants tended to attribute it to contextual factors (e.g., not wanting to be late for work; Miller et al., 2018). This suggests that while the ability to consider others’ inner states is common across cultures, there may be cultural differences in what people prioritize when making those judgments Figure 11.21 .

Contextual factors other than culture may also be relevant. For example, people who experience autism spectrum disorder have more difficulty than neurotypical people on tasks requiring theory of mind (e.g., Baksh et al., 2021; Sasson et al., 2019), although this may depend to some extent on underlying general intellectual ability (Sasson et al., 2019). Also, when asked to explain their motivation for performing prosocial acts, people with autism spectrum disorder tend to provide egocentric answers (“I’m nice”) instead of answers that indicate larger understanding of social norms (“It’s important to help people”; Baksh et al., 2021).

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Cognitive Development in Adulthood

Cognitive development in early adulthood.

We have learned about cognitive development from infancy through adolescence, ending with Piaget’s stage of formal operations. Does that mean that cognitive development stops with adolescence? Couldn’t there be different ways of thinking in adulthood that come after (or “post”) formal operations?

In this section, we will learn about these types of postformal operational thought and consider research done by William Perry related to types of thought and advanced thinking. We will also look at education in early adulthood, the relationship between education and work, and some tools used by young adults to choose their careers.

Beyond Formal Operational Thought: Postformal Thought

Figure 1 . As young adults gain more experience, they think increasingly more in the abstract and are able to understand different perspectives and complexities.

In the adolescence module, we discussed Piaget’s formal operational thought. The hallmark of this type of thinking is the ability to think abstractly or to consider possibilities and ideas about circumstances never directly experienced. Thinking abstractly is only one characteristic of adult thought, however. If you compare a 14-year-old with someone in their late 30s, you would probably find that the later considers not only what is possible, but also what is likely. Why the change? The young adult has gained experience and understands why possibilities do not always become realities. This difference in adult and adolescent thought can spark arguments between the generations.

Here is an example. A student in her late 30s relayed such an argument she was having with her 14-year-old son. The son had saved a considerable amount of money and wanted to buy an old car and store it in the garage until he was old enough to drive. He could sit in it, pretend he was driving, clean it up, and show it to his friends. It sounded like a perfect opportunity. The mother, however, had practical objections. The car would just sit for several years while deteriorating. The son would probably change his mind about the type of car he wanted by the time he was old enough to drive and they would be stuck with a car that would not run. She was also concerned that having a car nearby would be too much temptation and the son might decide to sneak it out for a quick ride before he had a permit or license.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development ended with formal operations, but it is possible that other ways of thinking may develop after (or “post”) formal operations in adulthood (even if this thinking does not constitute a separate “stage” of development). Postformal thought is practical, realistic and more individualistic, but also characterized by understanding the complexities of various perspectives. As a person approaches the late 30s, chances are they make decisions out of necessity or because of prior experience and are less influenced by what others think. Of course, this is particularly true in individualistic cultures such as the United States. Postformal thought is often described as more flexible, logical, willing to accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous stages in development.

Perry’s Scheme

One of the first theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with William Perry (1970), who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University.  Perry noted that over the course of students’ college years, cognition tended to shift from dualism (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking) to multiplicity (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to relativism (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors). Similar to Piaget’s formal operational thinking in adolescence, this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences.

Video 1. Perry’s Scheme of Intellectual Development. 

Dialectical Thought

In addition to moving toward more practical considerations, thinking in early adulthood may also become more flexible and balanced. Abstract ideas that the adolescent believes in firmly may become standards by which the individual evaluates reality. As Perry’s research pointed out, adolescents tend to think in dichotomies or absolute terms; ideas are true or false; good or bad; right or wrong and there is no middle ground. However, with education and experience, the young adult comes to recognize that there is some right and some wrong in each position. Such thinking is more realistic because very few positions, ideas, situations, or people are completely right or wrong.

Some adults may move even beyond the relativistic or contextual thinking described by Perry; they may be able to bring together important aspects of two opposing viewpoints or positions, synthesize them, and come up with new ideas. This is referred to as  dialectical thought  and is considered one of the most advanced aspects of postformal thinking (Basseches, 1984). There isn’t just one theory of postformal thought; there are variations, with emphasis on adults’ ability to tolerate ambiguity or to accept contradictions or find new problems, rather than solve problems, etc. (as well as relativism and dialecticism that we just learned about). What they all have in common is the proposition that the way we think may change during adulthood with education and experience.

Schaie and Willis’ Stage Theory of Cognition

Another perspective on post-formal cognitive development focuses less on the development of cognitive skills and instead discerns the changes in the use of intellect. Shaie and Willis’ stage theory of cognition proposed several stages of adult cognitive development.

During childhood and adolescence, cognition is about the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. These young people may not yet know how they will use these acquired skills. In early adulthood, people switch their focus from the acquisition to the application of knowledge, as they use what they know to pursue careers and develop their families. This is called the  achieving stage. It represents most prominently the application of intelligence in situations that have profound consequences for achieving long-term goals. The kind of intelligence exhibited in such situations is similar to that employed in educational tasks, but it requires careful attention to the possible consequences of the problem-solving process.

Adults who have mastered the cognitive skills required for monitoring their own behavior and, as a consequence, have attained a certain degree of personal independence will next move into a stage that requires the application of cognitive skills in situations involving social responsibility. Typically, the responsible stage occurs when a family is established and the needs of a spouse and offspring must be met. Similar extensions of adult cognitive skills are required as responsibilities for others are acquired on the job and in the community.

Some individualsʼ responsibilities become exceedingly complex. Such individuals－presidents of business firms, deans of academic institutions, officials of churches, and a number of other positions－need to understand the structure and the dynamic forces of organizations. They must monitor organizational activities not only on a temporal dimension (past, present, and future), but also up and down the hierarchy that defines the organization. They need to know not only the future plans of the organization but also whether policy decisions are being adequately translated into action at lower levels of responsibility. Attainment of the executive stage, as a variation on the responsibility stage, depends on exposure to opportunities that allow the development and practice of the relevant skills (Avolio, 1991; Smith, Staudinger, & Baltes, 1994).

In the later years of life, beyond the age of 60 or 65, the need to acquire knowledge declines even more, and executive monitoring is less important because frequently the individual has retired from the position that required such an application of intelligence. This stage, reintegration , corresponds in its position in the life course to Eriksonʼs stage of ego integrity. The information that elderly people acquire and the knowledge they apply becomes a function of their interests, attitudes, and values. It requires, in fact, the reintegration of all of these. The elderly are less likely to “waste time” on tasks that are meaningless to them. They are unlikely to expend much effort to solve a problem unless that problem is one that they face frequently in their lives. This stage frequently includes a selective reduction of interpersonal networks in the interest of reintegrating oneʼs concern in a more self-directed and supportive manner (cf. Carstensen, 1993; Carstensen, Gross, & Fung, 1997). In addition, efforts must be directed towards planning how oneʼs resources will last for the remaining 15 to 30 years of post-retirement life that are now characteristic for most individuals in industrialized societies. These efforts include active planning for that time when dependence upon others may be required to maintain a high quality of life in the face of increasing frailty. Such efforts may involve changes in oneʼs housing arrangements, or even oneʼs place of residence, as well as making certain of the eventual availability of both familial and extra-familial support systems. The activities involved in this context include making or changing oneʼs will, drawing up advanced medical directives and durable powers of attorney, as well as creating trusts or other financial arrangements that will protect resources for use during the final years of life or for the needs of other family members.

Although some of these activities involve the same cognitive characteristics of the responsible stage, these objectives involved are far more centered upon current and future needs of the individual rather than the needs of their family or of an organizational entity. Efforts must now be initiated to reorganize oneʼs time and resources to substitute a meaningful environment, often found in leisure activities, volunteerism, and involvement with a larger kinship network. Eventually, however, activities are also engaged in maximizing the quality of life during the final years, often with the additional objective of not becoming a burden for the next generation. The unique objective of these demands upon the individual represent an almost universal process occurring at least in the industrialized societies, and designation of a separate reorganizational stage is therefore warranted. The skills required for the reorganizational stage require the maintenance of reasonably high levels of cognitive competence. In addition, maintenance of flexible cognitive styles are needed to be able to restructure the context and content of life after retirement, to relinquish control of resources to others and to accept the partial surrender of oneʼs independence (Schaie, 1984; 2005).

Many older persons reach advanced old age in relative comfort and often with a clear mind albeit a frail body. Once the reintegrative efforts described above have been successfully completed, yet one other stage is frequently observed. This last stage is concerned with cognitive activities by many of the very old that occur in anticipation of the end of their life. This is a legacy stage t ha t is part of the cognitive development of many, if not all, older persons. This stage often begins by the effort to conduct a life review (Butler, Lewis, & Sunderland, 1998). For the highly literate and those successful in public or professional life this will often include writing or revising an autobiography (Birren, Kenyon, Ruth, Schroots, & Swensson, 1995; Birren & Schroots, 2006). There are also many other more mundane legacies to be left. Women, in particular, often wish to put their remaining effects in order and often distribute many of their prized possessions to friends and relatives, or create elaborate instructions for distributing them. It is not uncommon for many very old people to make a renewed effort at providing an oral history or to explain family pictures and heirloom to the next generation. Last, but not least, directions may be given for funeral arrangements, occasionally including the donation of oneʼs body for scientific research, and there may be a final revision of oneʼs will.

Education and Work

Education in early adulthood.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2017), 90 percent of the American population 25 and older have completed high school or higher level of education—compare this to just 24 percent in 1940! Each generation tends to earn (and perhaps need) increased levels of formal education. As we can see in the graph, approximately one-third of the American adult population has a bachelor’s degree or higher, as compared with less than 5 percent in 1940. Educational attainment rates vary by gender and race. All races combined, women are slightly more likely to have graduated from college than men; that gap widens with graduate and professional degrees. However, wide racial disparities still exist. For example, 23 percent of African-Americans have a college degree and only 16.4 percent of Hispanic Americans have a college degree, compared to 37 percent of non-Hispanic white Americans. The college graduation rates of African-Americans and Hispanic Americans have been growing in recent years, however (the rate has doubled since 1991 for African-Americans and it has increased 60 percent in the last two decades for Hispanic-Americans).

Figure 2.  Since 1940, there has been a significant rise in educational attainment for adults over age 25.

Education and the Workplace

With the rising costs of higher education, various news headlines have asked if a college education is worth the cost. One way to address this question is in terms of the earning potential associated with various levels of educational achievement. In 2016, the average earnings for Americans 25 and older with only a high school education was $35,615, compared with $65,482 for those with a bachelor’s degree, compared with $92,525 for those with more advanced degrees. Average earnings vary by gender, race, and geographical location in the United States.

Of concern in recent years is the relationship between higher education and the workplace. In 2005, American educator and then Harvard University President, Derek Bok, called for a closer alignment between the goals of educators and the demands of the economy. Companies outsource much of their work, not only to save costs but to find workers with the skills they need. What is required to do well in today’s economy? Colleges and universities, he argued, need to promote global awareness, critical thinking skills, the ability to communicate, moral reasoning, and responsibility in their students. Regional accrediting agencies and state organizations provide similar guidelines for educators. Workers need skills in listening, reading, writing, speaking, global awareness, critical thinking, civility, and computer literacy—all skills that enhance success in the workplace.

More than a decade later, the question remains: does formal education prepare young adults for the workplace? It depends on whom you ask. In an article referring to information from the National Association of Colleges and Employers’ 2018 Job Outlook Survey, Bauer-Wolf (2018) explains that employers perceive gaps in students’ competencies but many graduating college seniors are overly confident. The biggest difference was in perceived professionalism and work ethic (only 43 percent of employers thought that students are competent in this area compared to 90 percent of the students). Similar differences were also found in terms of oral communication, written communication, and critical thinking skills. Only in terms of digital technology skills were more employers confident about students’ competencies than were the students (66 percent compared to 60 percent).

It appears that students need to learn what some call “soft skills,” as well as the particular knowledge and skills within their college major. As education researcher Loni Bordoloi Pazich (2018) noted, most American college students today are enrolling in business or other pre-professional programs and to be effective and successful workers and leaders, they would benefit from the communication, teamwork, and critical thinking skills, as well as the content knowledge, gained from liberal arts education. In fact, two-thirds of children starting primary school now will be employed in jobs in the future that currently do not exist. Therefore, students cannot learn every single skill or fact that they may need to know, but they can learn how to learn, think, research, and communicate well so that they are prepared to continually learn new things and adapt effectively in their careers and lives since the economy, technology, and global markets will continue to evolve.

Career Choices in Early Adulthood

Hopefully, we are each becoming lifelong learners, particularly since we are living longer and will most likely change jobs multiple times during our lives. However, for many, our job changes will be within the same general occupational field, so our initial career choice is still significant. We’ve seen with Erikson that identity largely involves occupation and, as we will learn in the next section, Levinson found that young adults typically form a dream about work (though females may have to choose to focus relatively more on work or family initially with “split” dreams). The American School Counselor Association recommends that school counselors aid students in their career development beginning as early as kindergarten and continue this development throughout their education.

One of the most well-known theories about career choice is from John Holland (1985), who proposed that there are six personality types (realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional), as well as varying types of work environments. The better matched one’s personality is to the workplace characteristics, the more satisfied and successful one is predicted to be with that career or vocational choice. Research support has been mixed and we should note that there is more to satisfaction and success in a career than one’s personality traits or likes and dislikes. For instance, education, training, and abilities need to match the expectations and demands of the job, plus the state of the economy, availability of positions, and salary rates may play practical roles in choices about work.

Link to Learning: What’s Your Right Career?

To complete a free online career questionnaire and identify potential careers based on your preferences, go to:

Career One Stop Questionnaire

Did you find out anything intere sting? Think of this activity as a starting point to your career exploration.  Other great ways for young adults to research careers include informational interviewing, job shadowing, volunteering, practicums, and internships. Once you have a few careers in mind that you want to find out more about, go to the  Occupational Outlook Handbook from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics to learn about job tasks, required education, average pay, and projected outlook for the future.

Candela Citations

• Introduction to Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood. Authored by : Margaret Clark-Plaskie for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Margaret Clark-Plaskie. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Young Woman. Authored by : Karolina Grabowska. Located at : https://pixabay.com/images/id-791849/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by : Laura Overstreet. Located at : http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Millennials Jam Workshop: Youth and ICTs beyond 2015. Authored by : ITU Pictures. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/itupictures/9024333319 . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Summary of Perry's research. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_G._Perry . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Postformal thought. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postformal_thought . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Perry's Scheme of Intellectual Development. Authored by : Eric Landrum. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XkEJIXvwROs . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Highest Educational Levels Reached by Adults in the U.S. Since 1940. Provided by : U.S. Census Bureau. Located at : https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2017/comm/cb17-51_educational_attainment.html . License : All Rights Reserved

Formal Operational Stage – Piaget’s 4th Stage (Examples)

Would you say that you think abstractly? Do you think about the “bigger picture?” I don’t mean thinking about your life 10 years in the future. I mean thinking about the purpose of existence and why humans have evolved as we have. We’re not tackling all of these questions today, but we will talk about how we came to ask them and how we answer them.

Children in elementary or middle school typically do not possess these skills. Until children reach the formal operational stage in Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, they go through three concrete development stages that only allow them to think concretely. They can follow the rules of how the world works but are limited by these concrete concepts.

What Is the Formal Operational Stage?

Once children reach adolescence, they enter the Formal Operational Stage. This is the last stage in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. The Formal Operational Stage doesn’t end - there are ways that you can heighten your abstract problem-solving skills from age 12 to age 112! 

The formal operational stage begins between around 11-12. Children are usually in grade school around this time. They can take on more responsibilities than they did in earlier stages of development, but they are still considered young children. Health organizations still categorize ages 11 and 12 as "middle childhood."

Entering the Formal Operational Stage

Children ages 11 and 12 have just finished the concrete operational stage. This stage lasts from ages 6-11. By the time a child enters the formal operational stage, they should be able to:

• Arrange items in a logical order
• Build friendships based on empathy
• Understand that 5mL of water in one glass is the same amount as 5mL of water in a separate glass
• Recognize that a ball of pizza dough is the same as flattened pizza dough

Playing games and doing science experiments with children is much more fun at this age. They understand so much more!

During this stage, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and solve problems in a systematic manner. Here are 14 examples of behaviors and thought processes that are characteristic of the formal operational stage:

• Hypothetical Thinking : The ability to consider hypothetical situations and possibilities. For instance, a teenager might ponder, "What would happen if the sun never rose?"
• Abstract Thought : Thinking about concepts not directly tied to concrete experiences, such as justice, love, or morality.
• Systematic Problem Solving : When faced with a problem, individuals can systematically test potential solutions. For example, if a science experiment doesn't produce the expected result, a student might change one variable at a time to determine which one is responsible.
• Metacognition : The ability to think about one's own thought processes. Students might reflect on how they study best or recognize when they do not understand a concept.
• Moral Reasoning : Moving beyond black-and-white thinking to consider the nuances of moral dilemmas. For instance, understanding that stealing is generally wrong but pondering whether it's justified if someone is stealing food to feed their starving family.
• Scientific Reasoning : Formulating hypotheses and conducting experiments in a methodical manner to test them.
• Understanding Sarcasm and Metaphors : Recognizing that the phrase "It's raining cats and dogs" doesn't mean animals are falling from the sky.
• Planning for the Future : Considering future possibilities and making plans based on them, such as choosing college courses based on a desired future career.
• Evaluating the Quality of Information : Recognizing the difference between opinion and fact or understanding that just because something is on the internet doesn't make it true.
• Logical Thought : Thinking logically and methodically, even about abstract concepts. For example, if all roses are flowers and some flowers fade quickly, then some roses fade quickly.
• Considering Multiple Perspectives : Understanding that others might have a different point of view and trying to see things from their perspective.
• Propositional Thought : Understanding that a statement can be logical based solely on the information provided, even if it's untrue. For instance, "If all dogs can fly and Fido is a dog, then Fido can fly" is logically sound, even though we know dogs can't fly.
• Complex Classification : Classifying objects based on multiple characteristics. For example, organizing books by both genre and author.
• Understanding Abstract Relationships : Recognizing relationships like "If A is greater than B, and B is greater than C, then A is greater than C."

What Characterizes the Formal Operational Stage?

Four specific skills are signs that a child is in the formal operational stage:

Deductive Reasoning

Abstract thought, problem-solving.

• Metacognition

The child learns to apply logic to certain situations during the Concrete Operational Stage . But they are limited to inductive reasoning. In the Formal Operational Stage, they start to learn (and learn the limits of) deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning uses observations to make a conclusion. Say a student has six teachers throughout their life, all strict. They are likely to conclude that all teachers are strict. They may find that later in life, they will change their conclusion, but until they observe a teacher who is not strict, this is the conclusion they will come to.

Deductive reasoning works differently. It uses facts and lessons to create a conclusion. The child will be presented with two facts:

“All teachers are strict.”

“Mr. Johnson is a teacher.”

Using deductive reasoning, the child can conclude that Mr. Johnson is strict.

Throughout the child’s development, they start to expand their world. In the sensorimotor stage, their world consists of only what is directly in front of them. If something is out of sight or earshot, it no longer exists.

As they develop object permanence, they understand that the world exists beyond what they can physically see, hear, or touch. In the concrete operational stage, children begin to apply the rules of logic to things and rules they know exist.

In this final stage, they begin to expand their worldview further. They begin to develop abstract thought. They can apply logic to situations that don’t follow the rules of the physical world.

Piaget's Third Eye Question: The Difference Between Concrete Operational and Formal Operational Stages

One of the ways that Piaget tested this skill was to ask the children questions. Here’s an example of a question that Piaget asked children:

“If you had a third eye, where would you put it?” 

Children in the Concrete Operational Stage were limited to answering that they would put the eye on their forehead or face. They were typically only exposed to animals and humans with eyes on their faces. But children in the Formal Operational Stage were likelier to branch out and think of more useful and abstract answers. They considered putting the eye on their hand, back, or elsewhere where it would serve a greater purpose.

These skills make solving problems a whole lot easier. Children can only solve problems through trial and error in the Concrete Operational Stage and earlier stages. As they enter the Formal Operational Stage, they can look back at the problem, use past experience and reasoning to form a hypothesis, and test out what they believe will happen. This can save them a lot of time.

To determine when children had developed these skills, Piaget used another testing method. He gave them a scale with a set of weights and asked them to balance the scale with the weights. But simply putting the same amount of weight on each side wasn’t enough. The children had to determine that the distance between the weights and the scale's center also impacted the balance.

Children under the age of 10 heavily struggled with the task because they could not understand the concept of balance (if they were in the Preoperational Stage) or could not grasp that the center of balance is also important. (These children were in the early stages of the Concrete Operational Stage.) At age 10, the children could solve the problem, but at a much slower pace due to their process of trial and error.

It wasn’t until age 11 or 12 that children could look at the problem from a distance and use logic to use both the distance and size of the weights to balance the scale.

MetaCognition

Not all of these thought processes are perfect the first time around. You know that I know that, and children in the Formal Operational Stage are just starting to discover that. By using MetaCognition, they are more likely to assess their thinking and transform it into a more effective form of problem-solving.

MetaCognition is simply “thinking about thinking.” It is the ability to run through your own thought process, figure out how you developed that process, and maybe unwind some things that aren’t logical or can be disproven. This can help you “rebuild” your thought process as if it were building blocks, creating a more solid structure for you to solve problems.

Piaget did not actually coin this term while developing his theory on the Formal Operational Stage. John Flavell, an American psychologist, actually proposed the theory on MetaCognition in the late 1970s.

We’ve seen throughout these videos that the Theory of Cognitive Development has continued to grow and change with additional input and studies. Our minds can also change their thought processes and begin to notice imperfections and flawed logic as they come up. But this often requires going back and asking yourself how you built certain thought processes and where you could have made flawed conclusions.

How to Support a Child in the Formal Operational Stage

Children in the formal operational stage (typically 12 years and older) begin thinking more abstractly and logically, engaging in hypothetical reasoning and considering multiple variables in problem-solving. To best support and nurture their cognitive development outside of school, consider these activity suggestions:

• Play Strategic Board Games: Introduce games that require planning, strategizing, and critical thinking. Games like chess, Risk, Settlers of Catan, and Ticket to Ride can enhance their deductive reasoning and promote patience. These games also often require players to predict opponents' moves, honing their skills in understanding perspectives.
• Engage in Thought Experiments: Stimulate abstract thinking by posing hypothetical questions. Asking imaginative yet thought-provoking questions like, "If you could invent a new school subject, what would it be and why?" or "How would our lives change if we had no electricity for a year?" can spark interesting discussions and foster creativity.
• Encourage Scientific Experiments: Let them set up a mini-lab at home. Whether it's a simple vinegar and baking soda reaction or a more complex examination of plant growth under different conditions, hands-on experiments can solidify their understanding of cause and effect.
• Delve into Philosophy and Ethics: Discuss moral dilemmas or philosophical conundrums suitable for their age. Questions like, "Is it ever okay to lie?" or "What makes something 'right' or 'wrong'?" can challenge them to consider multiple viewpoints and refine their moral reasoning.
• Read and Analyze Stories Together: Choose books or movies with deeper themes or complex characters. Discuss the motives, the plot's implications, or any symbolism. This improves their comprehension skills and teaches them to think critically about media.
• Involve Them in Real-Life Problem-Solving: Whether planning a family trip, budgeting for a big purchase, or deciding on the best route for a journey, including them in the process can provide practical applications for their developing logical reasoning skills.
• Respect and Respond to Their Queries: Children at this stage are brimming with questions, many of which can be profound or reflective. When they approach you with a query, respond with patience and logic. If you don't know the answer, consider researching it together. This collaborative approach provides them with information and models a proactive attitude toward learning.

By actively engaging with children in these ways, parents and caregivers can provide invaluable support as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of the formal operational stage.

Formal Operational Stage vs. Other Stages of Development

Jean Piaget is not the only psychologist to create stages of development. Other psychologists have offered their theories on how a child develops social skills and how their experiences during each stage impact their relationships and behavior. Some theories, like Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, last for the span of the person's life. Other theories, like Piaget's, only cover childhood and early adolescence. When we compare Piaget's theory to other theories, we see some overlap and other perspectives on what makes a child the person they grow up to be.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

At ages 11-12, a child exits the Industry vs. Inferiority stage and enters the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage. The child should be aware that they are responsible for their own decisions and how they affect others. They also start to see that they are different from other children. They will successfully exit these stages if they feel confident that they can advocate for themselves and live the way they want. Otherwise, they may develop insecurities. Erikson coined the term "identity crisis." This crisis could take place in the identity vs. role confusion stage!

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

During the ages of 11-12, a child is in the latent stage of psychosexual development and may be entering the genital stage. The change in stages all depends on when the child goes through puberty. Freud's controversial stages focused on a child's erogenous zones and sexual interests. As the child discovers sexual interests in the latent stage, they must learn to channel their energy into intellectual activities. The child can form healthy relationships by letting the superego tame the id. In the genital stage, teenagers and adults learn to explore their maturing sexual interests.

Which Theory is "Right?"

All these theories can play out simultaneously, but remember, these are just theories. Some ideas, like Freud's Oedipal Complex that occurred in earlier stages of development, have been discredited and largely rejected by today's psychologists. We continue to learn about Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and other psychologists to understand how psychology developed into the field we know today.

Thanks for checking out these pages on the Theory of Cognitive Development! I hope these will allow you to look at your own thinking and build a stronger foundation for solving problems and understanding the world around you - no matter how old you are!

Piaget's Influence on Modern Educational Practices

Jean Piaget's groundbreaking theories on cognitive development have left an indelible mark on the realm of education. Even today, educators worldwide employ strategies rooted in Piaget's insights. Here's how Piaget’s theories continue to shape contemporary educational practices:

• Active Learning: Piaget emphasized the importance of active learning. He believed children learn best when interacting with their environment and manipulating objects. This belief has shifted from passive rote memorization to hands-on, experiential learning. Schools often incorporate field trips, lab experiments, and interactive activities to facilitate this.
• Developmentally Appropriate Practices: Recognizing that children progress through specific stages of cognitive development, educators design curricula tailored to these stages. For instance, in the pre-operational stage (2-7 years), children benefit from using concrete objects and visuals. Meanwhile, older children in the formal operational stage (12 years and up) are more equipped for abstract thinking and can engage in more complex problem-solving tasks.
• Focus on the Process, Not Just the Outcome: Piaget believed that the process of thinking and the journey of arriving at an answer are just as necessary as the answer itself. This philosophy has encouraged educators to value and assess how students approach problems, not just the correctness of their answers.
• Peer Interaction: Piaget felt that peer interaction is crucial for cognitive development. He observed that children often learn best when discussing, debating, and collaborating with classmates. Group work, cooperative learning, and classroom discussions are now staples in many classrooms, promoting social interaction as a valuable learning tool.
• Incorporating Real-life Situations: To make learning meaningful, Piaget suggested relating it to real-life situations. This has led to problem-based learning and the inclusion of real-world issues in the curriculum, ensuring that students see the relevance and applicability of their learning.
• Role of the Teacher: In line with Piaget's theories, the teacher's role has evolved from the traditional "sage on the stage" to more of a "guide on the side." Teachers now often act as facilitators, providing resources, posing guiding questions, and helping students make their discoveries.
• Assessment Practices: Piaget's emphasis on stages of cognitive development has led to more nuanced and stage-sensitive assessment methods. Teachers are more attuned to the developmental readiness of their students, ensuring that assessments are appropriate for their cognitive level.
• Constructivist Classrooms: Stemming from Piaget's idea that learners construct knowledge based on their experiences, many modern classrooms adopt a constructivist approach. Here, students are encouraged to construct their understanding and knowledge of the world by experiencing and reflecting on those experiences.

While educational practices have evolved and integrated various theories, Piaget's influence is unmistakably prevalent. His focus on the child as an active learner, the stages of cognitive development, and the significance of hands-on, relevant learning continues to shape how education is delivered in the 21st century.

Related posts:

• Concrete Operational Stage (3rd Cognitive Development)
• Piaget's Theory of Moral Development (4 Stages + Examples)
• Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory
• The Psychology of Long Distance Relationships

Reference this article:

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Developmental Psychology

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Trust vs Mistrust

Autonomy vs Shame

Initiative vs Guilt

Industry vs inferiority

Identity vs Confusion

Intimacy vs Isolation

Generativity vs Stagnation

Integrity vs Despair

Attachment Styles

Avoidant Attachment

Anxious Attachment

Secure Attachment

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Piaget's Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage

Object Permanence

Preoperational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage

Formal Operational Stage

Unconditional Positive Regard

Birth Order

Zone of Proximal Development

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Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

What you’ll learn to do: explain cognitive development in early adulthood.

We have learned about cognitive development from infancy through adolescence, ending with Piaget’s stage of formal operations. Does that mean that cognitive development stops with adolescence? Couldn’t there be different ways of thinking in adulthood that come after (or “post”) formal operations?

In this section, we will learn about these types of postformal operational thought and consider research done by William Perry related to types of thought and advanced thinking. We will also look at education in early adulthood, the relationship between education and work, and some tools used by young adults to choose their careers.

Learning Outcomes

• Distinguish between formal and postformal thought
• Describe cognitive development and dialectical thought during early adulthood
• Describe educational trends in early adulthood
• Explain the relationship between education and work in early adulthood

Beyond Formal Operational Thought: Postformal Thought

In the adolescence module, we discussed Piaget’s formal operational thought. The hallmark of this type of thinking is the ability to think abstractly or to consider possibilities and ideas about circumstances never directly experienced. Thinking abstractly is only one characteristic of adult thought, however. If you compare a 14-year-old with someone in their late 30s, you would probably find that the later considers not only what is possible, but also what is likely. Why the change? The young adult has gained experience and understands why possibilities do not always become realities. This difference in adult and adolescent thought can spark arguments between the generations.

Here is an example. A student in her late 30s relayed such an argument she was having with her 14-year-old son. The son had saved a considerable amount of money and wanted to buy an old car and store it in the garage until he was old enough to drive. He could sit in it, pretend he was driving, clean it up, and show it to his friends. It sounded like a perfect opportunity. The mother, however, had practical objections. The car would just sit for several years while deteriorating. The son would probably change his mind about the type of car he wanted by the time he was old enough to drive and they would be stuck with a car that would not run. She was also concerned that having a car nearby would be too much temptation and the son might decide to sneak it out for a quick ride before he had a permit or license.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development ended with formal operations, but it is possible that other ways of thinking may develop after (or “post”) formal operations in adulthood (even if this thinking does not constitute a separate “stage” of development). Postformal thought is practical, realistic and more individualistic, but also characterized by understanding the complexities of various perspectives. As a person approaches the late 30s, chances are they make decisions out of necessity or because of prior experience and are less influenced by what others think. Of course, this is particularly true in individualistic cultures such as the United States. Postformal thought is often described as more flexible, logical, willing to accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous stages in development.

Perry’s Scheme

One of the first theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with William Perry (1970) [1] , who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University.  Perry noted that over the course of students’ college years, cognition tended to shift from dualism (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking) to multiplicity (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to relativism (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors). Similar to Piaget’s formal operational thinking in adolescence, this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences.

Please watch this brief lecture by Dr. Eric Landrum to better understand the way that thinking can shift during college, according to Perry’s scheme. Notice the overall shifts in beliefs over time. Do you recognize your own thinking or the thinking of others you know in this clip?

Dialectical Thought

In addition to moving toward more practical considerations, thinking in early adulthood may also become more flexible and balanced. Abstract ideas that the adolescent believes in firmly may become standards by which the individual evaluates reality. As Perry’s research pointed out, adolescents tend to think in dichotomies or absolute terms; ideas are true or false; good or bad; right or wrong and there is no middle ground. However, with education and experience, the young adult comes to recognize that there is some right and some wrong in each position. Such thinking is more realistic because very few positions, ideas, situations, or people are completely right or wrong.

Some adults may move even beyond the relativistic or contextual thinking described by Perry; they may be able to bring together important aspects of two opposing viewpoints or positions, synthesize them, and come up with new ideas. This is referred to as  dialectical thought  and is considered one of the most advanced aspects of postformal thinking (Basseches, 1984). There isn’t just one theory of postformal thought; there are variations, with emphasis on adults’ ability to tolerate ambiguity or to accept contradictions or find new problems, rather than solve problems, etc. (as well as relativism and dialecticism that we just learned about). What they all have in common is the proposition that the way we think may change during adulthood with education and experience.

Education and Work

Education in early adulthood.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2017), 90 percent of the American population 25 and older have completed high school or higher level of education—compare this to just 24 percent in 1940! Each generation tends to earn (and perhaps need) increased levels of formal education. As we can see in the graph, approximately one-third of the American adult population has a bachelor’s degree or higher, as compared with less than 5 percent in 1940. Educational attainment rates vary by gender and race. All races combined, women are slightly more likely to have graduated from college than men; that gap widens with graduate and professional degrees. However, wide racial disparities still exist. For example, 23 percent of African-Americans have a college degree and only 16.4 percent of Hispanic Americans have a college degree, compared to 37 percent of non-Hispanic white Americans. The college graduation rates of African-Americans and Hispanic Americans have been growing in recent years, however (the rate has doubled since 1991 for African-Americans and it has increased 60 percent in the last two decades for Hispanic-Americans).

What about those young or emerging adults graduating high school today—is the majority of that group going to college? According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2017), 66.7 percent of youth ages 16-24 who graduated high school between January and October 2017 were enrolled in colleges or universities in October 2017. There were gender differences (71.7 percent of females vs. 61.1 percent of males) and racial differences (83 percent of Asians, 67.1 percent of non-Hispanic whites, 61 percent Hispanics, and 59.4 percent Blacks). Not all of these students will persist and earn college degrees, however. [2]

Education and the Workplace

With the rising costs of higher education, various news headlines have asked if a college education is worth the cost. One way to address this question is in terms of the earning potential associated with various levels of educational achievement. In 2016, the average earnings for Americans 25 and older with only a high school education was $35,615, compared with $65,482 for those with a bachelor’s degree, compared with $92,525 for those with more advanced degrees. Average earnings vary by gender, race, and geographical location in the United States. [3]

Of concern in recent years is the relationship between higher education and the workplace. In 2005, American educator and then Harvard University President, Derek Bok, called for a closer alignment between the goals of educators and the demands of the economy. Companies outsource much of their work, not only to save costs but to find workers with the skills they need. What is required to do well in today’s economy? Colleges and universities, he argued, need to promote global awareness, critical thinking skills, the ability to communicate, moral reasoning, and responsibility in their students. Regional accrediting agencies and state organizations provide similar guidelines for educators. Workers need skills in listening, reading, writing, speaking, global awareness, critical thinking, civility, and computer literacy—all skills that enhance success in the workplace.

More than a decade later, the question remains: does formal education prepare young adults for the workplace? It depends on whom you ask. In an article referring to information from the National Association of Colleges and Employers’ 2018 Job Outlook Survey, Bauer-Wolf (2018) explains that employers perceive gaps in students’ competencies but many graduating college seniors are overly confident. The biggest difference was in perceived professionalism and work ethic (only 43 percent of employers thought that students are competent in this area compared to 90 percent of the students). [4] Similar differences were also found in terms of oral communication, written communication, and critical thinking skills. Only in terms of digital technology skills were more employers confident about students’ competencies than were the students (66 percent compared to 60 percent).

It appears that students need to learn what some call “soft skills,” as well as the particular knowledge and skills within their college major. As education researcher Loni Bordoloi Pazich (2018) noted, most American college students today are enrolling in business or other pre-professional programs and to be effective and successful workers and leaders, they would benefit from the communication, teamwork, and critical thinking skills, as well as the content knowledge, gained from liberal arts education. [5] In fact, two-thirds of children starting primary school now will be employed in jobs in the future that currently do not exist. Therefore, students cannot learn every single skill or fact that they may need to know, but they can learn how to learn, think, research, and communicate well so that they are prepared to continually learn new things and adapt effectively in their careers and lives since the economy, technology, and global markets will continue to evolve. [6]

Career Choices in Early Adulthood

Hopefully, we are each becoming lifelong learners, particularly since we are living longer and will most likely change jobs multiple times during our lives. However, for many, our job changes will be within the same general occupational field, so our initial career choice is still significant. We’ve seen with Erikson that identity largely involves occupation and, as we will learn in the next section, Levinson found that young adults typically form a dream about work (though females may have to choose to focus relatively more on work or family initially with “split” dreams). The American School Counselor Association recommends that school counselors aid students in their career development beginning as early as kindergarten and continue this development throughout their education.  [7]

One of the most well-known theories about career choice is from John Holland (1985), who proposed that there are six personality types (realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional), as well as varying types of work environments. [8] The better matched one’s personality is to the workplace characteristics, the more satisfied and successful one is predicted to be with that career or vocational choice. Research support has been mixed and we should note that there is more to satisfaction and success in a career than one’s personality traits or likes and dislikes. For instance, education, training, and abilities need to match the expectations and demands of the job, plus the state of the economy, availability of positions, and salary rates may play practical roles in choices about work.

Link to Learning: What’s Your Right Career?

To complete a free online career questionnaire and identify potential careers based on your preferences, go to:

Career One Stop Questionnaire (https://www.careeronestop.org/GetMyFuture/Toolkit/Interest-assessment.aspx)

Did you find out anything interesting? Think of this activity as a starting point to your career exploration. Other great ways for young adults to research careers include informational interviewing, job shadowing, volunteering, practicums, and internships. Once you have a few careers in mind that you want to find out more about, go to the  Occupational Outlook Handbook (https://www.bls.gov/ooh/) from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics to learn about job tasks, required education, average pay, and projected outlook for the future.

• Perry, W.G., Jr. (1970). Forms of ethical and intellectual development in the college years: A scheme. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ↵
• US Census Bureau. (2017, March).  Highest Educational Levels Reached by Adults in the U.S. Since 1940. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2017/cb17-51.html ↵
• Bauer-Wolf, J. (2018, February 23). Study: students believe they are prepared for the workplace; employers disagree. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/print/news/2018/02/23/study-student ↵
• Bordoloi Pazich, L. (2018, September 26). The power of academic friendship. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2018/09/26/need-combine-business ↵
• Henseler, C. (2017, September 6). Liberal arts is the foundation for professional success in the 21st century. Huffington Post. ↵
• The School Counselor and Career Development (2017). American School Counselor Association. Retrieved from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/PositionStatements/PS_CareerDevelopment.pdf ↵
• Holland, J.L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ↵

Lifespan Development Copyright © 2020 by Lumen Learning 2019 is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Emerging Adulthood & Cognition

Emerging adulthood.

Historically, early adulthood was considered to last from approximately the age of 18 (the end of adolescence) until 40 or 45 (the beginning of middle adulthood). More recently, developmentalists have divided this 25 year age period into two separate stages: Emerging adulthood followed by early adulthood. Although these age periods differ in their physical, cognitive, and social development, overall the age period from 18 to 40 is a time of peak physical capabilities and the emergence of more mature cognitive development, financial independence, and the establishment of intimate relationships.

Emerging Adulthood Defined

Emerging adulthood is the period between the late teens and early twenties ; ages 18-25, although some researchers have included up to age 29 in their definitions (Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood, 2016). Jeffrey Arnett (2000) argues that emerging adulthood is neither adolescence nor is it young adulthood. Individuals in this age period have left behind the relative dependency of childhood and adolescence but have not yet taken on the responsibilities of adulthood. “Emerging adulthood is a time of life when many different directions remain possible, when little about the future is decided for certain, when the scope of independent exploration of life’s possibilities is greater for most people than it will be at any other period of the life course” (Arnett, 2000, p. 469). Arnett identified five characteristics of emerging adulthood that distinguish it from adolescence and young adulthood (Arnett, 2006).

• It is the age of identity exploration . In 1950, Erik Erikson proposed that it was during adolescence that humans wrestled with the question of identity. Yet, even Erikson (1968) commented on a trend during the 20th century of a “prolonged adolescence” in industrialized societies. Today, most identity development occurs during the late teens and early twenties rather than adolescence. It is during emerging adulthood that people are exploring their career choices and ideas about intimate relationships, setting the foundation for adulthood.
•  Arnett also described this time period as the age of instability (Arnett, 2000; Arnett, 2006). Exploration generates uncertainty and instability. Emerging adults change jobs, relationships, and residences more frequently than other age groups.
• This is also the age of self-focus . Being self-focused is not the same as being “self-centered.” Adolescents are more self-centered than emerging adults. Arnett reports that in his research, he found emerging adults to be very considerate of the feelings of others, especially their parents. They now begin to see their parents as people not just parents, something most adolescents fail to do (Arnett, 2006). Nonetheless, emerging adults focus more on themselves, as they realize that they have few obligations to others and that this is the time where they can do what they want with their life.
• This is also the age of feeling in-between. When asked if they feel like adults, more 18 to 25 year-olds answer “yes and no” than do teens or adults over the age of 25 (Arnett, 2001). Most emerging adults have gone through the changes of puberty, are typically no longer in high school, and many have also moved out of their parents’ home. Thus, they no longer feel as dependent as they did as teenagers. Yet, they may still be financially dependent on their parents to some degree, and they have not completely attained some of the indicators of adulthood, such as finishing their education, obtaining a good full-time job, being in a committed relationship, or being responsible for others. It is not surprising that Arnett found that 60% of 18 to 25 year-olds felt that in some ways they were adults, but in some ways, they were not (Arnett, 2001).
• Emerging adulthood is the age of possibilities . It is a time period of optimism as more 18 to 25 year-olds feel that they will someday get to where they want to be in life. Arnett (2000, 2006) suggests that this optimism is because these dreams have yet to be tested. For example, it is easier to believe that you will eventually find your soul mate when you have yet to have had a serious relationship. It may also be a chance to change directions, for those whose lives up to this point have been difficult. The experiences of children and teens are influenced by the choices and decisions of their parents. If the parents are dysfunctional, there is little a child can do about it. In emerging adulthood, however, people can move out and move on. They have the chance to transform their lives and move away from unhealthy environments. Even those whose lives were happy and fulfilling as children, now have the opportunity in emerging adulthood to become independent and make their own decisions about the direction they would like their lives to take.

Socioeconomic Class and Emerging Adulthood.  The theory of emerging adulthood was initially criticized as only reflecting upper middle-class, college-attending young adults in the United States and not those who were working class or poor (Arnett, 2016). Consequently, Arnett reviewed results from the 2012 Clark University Poll of Emerging Adults, whose participants were demographically similar to the United States population. Results primarily indicated consistencies across aspects of the theory, including positive and negative perceptions of the time-period and views on education, work, love, sex, and marriage. Two significant differences were found, the first being that emerging adults from lower socioeconomic classes identified more negativity in their emotional lives, including higher levels of depression. Secondly, those in the lowest socioeconomic group were more likely to agree that they had not been able to find sufficient financial support to obtain the education they believed they needed. Overall, Arnett concluded that emerging adulthood exists wherever there is a period between the end of adolescence and entry into adult roles, but also acknowledged that social, cultural, and historical contexts were important.

Cross-cultural Variations.  The five features proposed in the theory of emerging adulthood originally were based on research involving Americans between ages 18 and 29 from various ethnic groups, social classes, and geographical regions (Arnett, 2004, 2016). To what extent does the theory of emerging adulthood apply internationally?

The answer to this question depends greatly on what part of the world is considered. Demographers make a useful distinction between the developing countries that comprise the majority of the world’s population and the economically developed countries that are part of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), including the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. The current population of OECD countries (also called developed countries) is 1.2 billion, about 18% of the total world population (United Nations Development Programme, 2011). The rest of the population resides in developing countries, which have much lower median incomes, much lower median educational attainment, and much higher incidence of illness, disease, and early death. Let us consider emerging adulthood in other OECD countries as little is known about the experiences of 18-25 year-olds in developing countries.

The same demographic changes as described above for the United States have taken place in other OECD countries as well. This is true of increasing participation in postsecondary education, as well as increases in the median ages for entering marriage and parenthood (UNdata, 2010). However, there is also substantial variability in how emerging adulthood is experienced across OECD countries. Europe is the region where emerging adulthood is longest and most leisurely. The median ages for entering marriage and parenthood are near 30 in most European countries (Douglass, 2007). Europe today is the location of the most affluent, generous, and egalitarian societies in the world, in fact, in human history (Arnett, 2007). Governments pay for tertiary education, assist young people in finding jobs, and provide generous unemployment benefits for those who cannot find work. In northern Europe, many governments also provide housing support. Emerging adults in European societies make the most of these advantages, gradually making their way to adulthood during their twenties while enjoying travel and leisure with friends.

The lives of emerging adults in developed Asian countries, such as Japan and South Korea, are in some ways similar to the lives of emerging adults in Europe and in some ways strikingly different. Like European emerging adults, Asian emerging adults tend to enter marriage and parenthood around age 30 (Arnett, 2011). Like European emerging adults, Asian emerging adults in Japan and South Korea enjoy the benefits of living in affluent societies with generous social welfare systems that provide support for them in making the transition to adulthood, including free university education and substantial unemployment benefits.

However, in other ways, the experience of emerging adulthood in Asian OECD countries is markedly different than in Europe. Europe has a long history of individualism, and today’s emerging adults carry that legacy with them in their focus on self-development and leisure during emerging adulthood. In contrast, Asian cultures have a shared cultural history emphasizing collectivism and family obligations.

Although Asian cultures have become more individualistic in recent decades, as a consequence of globalization, the legacy of collectivism persists in the lives of emerging adults. They pursue identity explorations and self-development during emerging adulthood, like their American and European counterparts, but within narrower boundaries set by their sense of obligations to others, especially their parents (Phinney & Baldelomar, 2011). For example, in their views of the most important criteria for becoming an adult, emerging adults in the United States and Europe consistently rank financial independence among the most important markers of adulthood. In contrast, emerging adults with an Asian cultural background especially emphasize becoming capable of supporting parents financially as among the most important criteria (Arnett, 2003; Nelson, Badger, & Wu, 2004). This sense of family obligation may curtail their identity explorations in emerging adulthood to some extent, and compared to emerging adults in the West, they pay more heed to their parents’ wishes about what they should study, what job they should take, and where they should live  (Rosenberger, 2007).

When Does Adulthood Begin? According to Rankin and Kenyon (2008), in years past the process of becoming an adult was more clearly marked by rites of passage. For many, marriage and parenthood were considered entry into adulthood. However, these role transitions are no longer considered the important markers of adulthood (Arnett, 2001). Economic and social changes have resulted in more young adults attending college (Rankin & Kenyon, 2008) and delaying marriage and having children (Arnett & Taber, 1994; Laursen & Jensen-Campbell, 1999) Consequently, current research has found financial independence and accepting responsibility for oneself to be the most important markers of adulthood in Western culture across age (Arnett, 2001) and ethnic groups (Arnett, 2004).

In looking at college students’ perceptions of adulthood, Rankin and Kenyon (2008) found that some students still view rites of passage as important markers. College students who placed more importance on role transition markers, such as parenthood and marriage, belonged to a fraternity/sorority, were traditionally aged (18–25), belonged to an ethnic minority, were of a traditional marital status (i.e., not cohabitating), or belonged to a religious organization, particularly for men. These findings supported the view that people holding collectivist or more traditional values place more importance on role transitions as markers of adulthood. In contrast, older college students and those cohabitating did not value role transitions as markers of adulthood as strongly.

Young Adults Living Arrangements.  In 2014, for the first time in more than 130 years, adults 18 to 34 were more likely to be living in their parents’ home than they were to be living with a spouse or partner in their own household (Fry, 2016). The current trend is that young Americans are not choosing to settle down romantically before age 35. Since 1880, living with a romantic partner was the most common living arrangement among young adults. In 1960, 62% of America’s 18- to 34-year-olds were living with a spouse or partner in their own household, while only 20% were living with their parents.

By 2014, 31.6% of early adults were living with a spouse or partner in their own household, while 32.1% were living in the home of their parent(s). Another 14% of early adults lived alone, were a single parent, or lived with one or more roommates. The remaining 22% lived in the home of another family member (such as a grandparent, in-law, or sibling), a non-relative, or in group quarters (e.g., college dormitories). Comparing ethnic groups, 36% of black and Hispanic early adults lived at home, while 30% of white young adults lived at home.

As can be seen in Figure 20.2, gender differences in living arrangements were also noted in that young men were living with parents at a higher rate than young women. In 2014, 35% of young men were residing with their parents, while 28% were living with a spouse or partner in their own household. Young women were more likely to be living with a spouse or partner (35%) than living with their parents (29%). Additionally, more young women (16%) than young men (13%) were heading up a household without a spouse or partner, primarily because women are more likely to be single parents living with their children. Lastly, young men (25%) were more likely than young women (19%) to be living in the home of another family member, a non-relative, or in some type of group quarters (Fry, 2016).

What are some factors that help explain these changes in living arrangements? First, early adults are increasingly postponing marriage or choosing not to marry or cohabitate. Lack of employment and lower wages have especially contributed to males residing with their parents. Men who are employed are less likely to live at home. Wages for young men (adjusting for inflation) have been falling since 1970 and correlate with the rise in young men living with their parents. The recent recession and recovery (2007-present) has also contributed to the increase in early adults living at home. College enrollments increased during the recession, which further increased early adults living at home. However, once early adults possess a college degree, they are more likely to establish their own households (Fry, 2016).

Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Emerging adulthood brings with it the consolidation of formal operational thought, and the continued integration of the parts of the brain that serve emotion, social processes, and planning and problem solving. As a result, rash decisions and risky behavior decrease rapidly across early adulthood. Increases in epistemic cognition are also seen, as young adults’ meta-cognition, or thinking about thinking, continues to grow, especially young adults who continue with their schooling.

Perry’s Scheme.  One of the first theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with William Perry (1970), who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University.  Perry noted that over the course of students’ college years, cognition tended to shift from dualism (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking) to multiplicity (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to relativism (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors). Similar to Piaget’s formal operational thinking in adolescence, this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences.

Table 8.1 Stages of Perry's Scheme

Adapted from Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning

Some researchers argue that a qualitative shift in cognitive development tales place for some emerging adults during their mid to late twenties. As evidence, they point to studies documenting continued integration and focalization of brain functioning, and studies suggesting that this developmental period often represents a turning point, when young adults engaging in risky behaviors (e.g., gang involvement, substance abuse) or an unfocused lifestyle (e.g., drifting from job to job or relationship to relationship) seem to “wake up” and take ownership for their own development. It is a common point for young adults to make decisions about completing or returning to school, and making and following through on decisions about vocation, relationships, living arrangements, and lifestyle. Many young adults can actually remember these turning points as a moment when they could suddenly “see” where they were headed (i.e., the likely outcomes of their risky behaviors or apathy) and actively decided to take a more self-determined pathway.

Optional Reading: Current Trends in Post-secondary Education

According to the National Center for Higher Education Management Systems (NCHEMS) (2016a, 2016b, 2016c, 2016d), in the United States:

• 84% of 18 to 24 year olds and 88% of those 25 and older have a high school diploma or its equivalent
• 36% of 18 to 24 year olds and 7% of 25 to 49 year olds attend college
• 59% of those 25 and older have completed some college
• 32.5% of those 25 and older have a bachelor’s degree or higher, with slightly more women (33%) than men (32%) holding a college degree (Ryan & Bauman, 2016).

The rate of college attainment has grown more slowly in the United States than in a number of other nations in recent years (OCED, 2014). This may be due to fact that the cost of attaining a degree is higher in the U.S. than in most other nations.

In 2017, 65% of college seniors who graduated from private and public nonprofit colleges had student loan debt, and nationally owed an average of $28,650, a 1% decline from 2016 (The Institute for College Access & Success (TICAS), 2018).

According to the most recent TICAS annual report, the rate of debt varied widely across states, as well as between colleges. The after graduation debt ranged from $18,850 in Utah to $38,500 in Connecticut. Low-debt states are mainly in the West, and high-debt states in the Northeast. In recent years there has been a concern about students carrying more debt and being more likely to default when attending for-profit institutions. In 2016, students at for-profit schools borrowed an average of $39,900, which was 41% higher than students at non-profit schools that year. In addition, 30% of students attending for-profit colleges default on their federal student loans. In contrast, the default level of those who attended public institutions is only 4% (TICAS, 2018).

College student debt has become a key political issue at both the state and federal level, and some states have been taking steps to increase spending and grants to help students with the cost of college. However, 15% of the Class of 2017’s college debt was owed to private lenders (TICAS, 2018). Such debt has less consumer protection, fewer options for repayment, and is typically negotiated at a higher interest rate. See Table 7.1 for a debt comparison of 6 U.S. States.

Graduate School: Larger amounts of student debt actually occur at the graduate level (Kreighbaum, 2019). In 2019, the highest average debts were concentrated in the medical fields. Average median debt for graduate programs included:

• $42,335 for a master’s degree
• $95,715 for a doctoral degree
• $141,000 for a professional degree

Worldwide, over 80% of college educated adults are employed, compared with just over 70% of those with a high school or equivalent diploma, and only 60% of those with no high school diploma (OECD, 2015). Those with a college degree will earn more over the course of their life time. Moreover, the benefits of college education go beyond employment and finances. The OECD found that around the world, adults with higher educational attainment were more likely to volunteer, felt they had more control over their lives, and thus were more interested in the world around them. Studies of U.S. college students find that they gain a more distinct identity and become more socially competent and less dogmatic and ethnocentric compared to those not in college (Pascarella, 2006).

Is college worth the time and investment? College is certainly a substantial investment each year, with the financial burden falling on students and their families in the U.S., and covered mainly by the government in many other nations. Nonetheless, the benefits both to the individual and the society outweighs the initial costs. As can be seen in Figure 7.18, those in America with the most advanced degrees earn the highest income and have the lowest unemployment.

Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55 , 469-480.

Arnett, J. J. (2001). Conceptions of the transitions to adulthood: Perspectives from adolescence to midlife. Journal of Adult Development, 8, 133-143.

Arnett, J. J. (2003). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 100 , 63–75.

Arnett, J. J. (2004). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups. In J. J. Arnett & N. Galambos (Eds.), Cultural conceptions of the transition to adulthood: New directions in child and adolescent development . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Arnett, J. J. (2006). G. Stanley Hall’s adolescence: Brilliance and non-sense. History of Psychology, 9, 186-197.

Arnett, J. J. (2011). Emerging adulthood(s): The cultural psychology of a new life stage. In L.A. Jensen (Ed.), Bridging cultural and developmental psychology: New syntheses in theory, research, and policy (pp. 255–275). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Arnett, J. J. (2016). Does emerging adulthood theory apply across social classes? National data on a persistent question. Emerging Adulthood, 4 (4), 227-235.

Arnett, J. J., & Taber, S. (1994). Adolescence terminable and interminable: When does adolescence end? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23 , 517–537.

Arnett, J.J. (2007). The long and leisurely route: Coming of age in Europe today. Current History, 106 , 130-136.

Basseches, M. (1984). Dialectical thinking and adult development . Norwood, NJ: Ablex Pub.

Douglass, C. B. (2007). From duty to desire: Emerging adulthood in Europe and its consequences. Child Development Perspectives, 1 , 101–108.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis . New York: Norton.

Fry, R. (2016). For first time in modern era, living with parents edges out other living arrangements for 18- to 34- year-olds. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/05/24/for-first-time-in-modern-era-living-with-parents-edges-out-other-living-arrangements-for-18-to-34-year-olds/st_2016-05-24_young-adults-living-03/

Fry, R. (2018). Millenials are the largest generation in the U. S. labor force. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Retrieved from: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact- tank/2018/04/11/millennials-largest-generation-us-labor-force/

Laursen, B., & Jensen-Campbell, L. A. (1999). The nature and functions of social exchange in adolescent romantic relationships. In W. Furman, B. B. Brown, & C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 50–74). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Nelson, L. J., Badger, S., & Wu, B. (2004). The influence of culture in emerging adulthood: Perspectives of Chinese college students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28 , 26–36.

Perry, W.G., Jr. (1970). Forms of ethical and intellectual development in the college years: A scheme. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Phinney, J. S. & Baldelomar, O. A. (2011). Identity development in multiple cultural contexts. In L. A. Jensen (Ed.), Bridging cultural and developmental psychology: New syntheses in theory, research and policy (pp. 161-186). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Rankin, L. A. & Kenyon, D. B. (2008). Demarcating role transitions as indicators of adulthood in the 21st century. Who are they? Journal of Adult Development, 15 (2), 87-92. doi: 10.1007/s10804-007-9035-2

Rosenberger, N. (2007). Rethinking emerging adulthood in Japan: Perspectives from long-term single women. Child Development Perspectives, 1 , 92–95.

Sinnott, J. D. (1998). The development of logic in adulthood . NY: Plenum Press.

Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood (SSEA). (2016). Overview. Retrieved from http://ssea.org/about/index.htm

UNdata (2010). Gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education. United Nations Statistics Division. Retrieved November 5, 2010, from http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=GenderStat&f=inID:68

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“Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective, Second Edition” by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA-3.0

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Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Diana Lang; Nick Cone; Margaret Clark-Plaskie; and Laura Overstreet

We have learned about cognitive development from infancy through adolescence, ending with Piaget’s stage of formal operations. Does that mean that cognitive development stops with adolescence? Couldn’t there be different ways of thinking in adulthood that comes after (or “post”) formal operations?

In this section, we will learn about these types of postformal operational thought and consider research done by William Perry related to types of thought and advanced thinking. We will also look at education in early adulthood, the relationship between education and work, and some tools used by young adults to choose their careers.

Beyond Formal Operational Thought: Postformal Thought

In the adolescence module, we discussed Piaget’s formal operational thought. The hallmark of this type of thinking is the ability to think abstractly or to consider possibilities and ideas about circumstances never directly experienced. Thinking abstractly is only one characteristic of adult thought, however. If you compare a 14-year-old with someone in their late 30s, you would probably find that the later considers not only what is possible, but also what is likely. Why the change? The young adult has gained experience and understands why possibilities do not always become realities. This difference in adult and adolescent thought can spark arguments between the generations.

Here is an example. A student in her late 30s relayed such an argument she was having with her 14-year-old son. The son had saved a considerable amount of money and wanted to buy an old car and store it in the garage until he was old enough to drive. He could sit in it, pretend he was driving, clean it up, and show it to his friends. It sounded like a perfect opportunity. The mother, however, had practical objections. The car would just sit for several years while deteriorating. The son would probably change his mind about the type of car he wanted by the time he was old enough to drive and they would be stuck with a car that would not run. She was also concerned that having a car nearby would be too much temptation and the son might decide to sneak it out for a quick ride before he had a permit or license.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development ended with formal operations, but it is possible that other ways of thinking may develop after (or “post”) formal operations in adulthood (even if this thinking does not constitute a separate “stage” of development).  Postformal thought  is practical, realistic and more individualistic, but also characterized by understanding the complexities of various perspectives. As a person approaches the late 30s, chances are they make decisions out of necessity or because of prior experience and are less influenced by what others think. Of course, this is particularly true in individualistic cultures such as the United States. Postformal thought is often described as more flexible, logical, willing to accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous stages in development.

Perry’s Scheme

One of the first theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with Perry, [1] who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University.  Perry noted that over the course of students’ college years, cognition tended to shift from dualism  (absolute, true/false, right and wrong type of thinking) to  multiplicity  (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to  relativism  (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors). Similar to Piaget’s formal operational thinking in adolescence, this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences.

Please watch this brief lecture by Dr. Eric Landrum to better understand the way that thinking can shift during college, according to Perry’s scheme.

Notice the overall shifts in beliefs over time. Do you recognize your own thinking or the thinking of others you know in this clip?

You can  view the transcript for “Perry’s Scheme of Intellectual Development” here (opens in new window) .

Dialectical Thought

In addition to moving toward more practical considerations, thinking in early adulthood may also become more flexible and balanced. Abstract ideas that the adolescent believes in firmly may become standards by which the individual evaluates reality. As Perry’s research pointed out, adolescents tend to think in dichotomies or absolute terms; ideas are true or false; good or bad; right or wrong and there is no middle ground. However, with education and experience, the young adult comes to recognize that there is some right and some wrong in each position. Such thinking is more realistic because very few positions, ideas, situations, or people are completely right or wrong.

Some adults may move even beyond the relativistic or contextual thinking described by Perry; they may be able to bring together important aspects of two opposing viewpoints or positions, synthesize them, and come up with new ideas. This is referred to as  dialectical thought and is considered one of the most advanced aspects of postformal thinking. [2] There isn’t just one theory of postformal thought; there are variations, with emphasis on adults’ ability to tolerate ambiguity or to accept contradictions or find new problems, rather than solve problems, etc. (as well as relativism and dialecticism that we just learned about). What they all have in common is the proposition that the way we think may change during adulthood with education and experience.

• Perry, W. G. (1998).  Forms of ethical and intellectual development in the college years: A scheme . Jossey-Bass. ↵
• Basseches, M. (1984).  Dialectical thinking and adult development . Praeger. ↵

Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being Copyright © 2022 by Diana Lang; Nick Cone; Margaret Clark-Plaskie; and Laura Overstreet is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

School Drillers

The real life examples of erikson’s stages of development.

Erik Erikson, a renowned developmental psychologist, proposed eight psychosocial stages that each person goes through in life, from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage is characterized by a key conflict that individuals must resolve to progress successfully. When these conflicts are resolved positively, individuals tend to emerge with strengths that serve them well in future stages. However, unresolved conflicts may lead to challenges that influence behavior and relationships. This article explores Erikson’s stages through real-life examples, making each stage easier to understand and relate to.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (0–18 Months)

Example: Imagine a baby, Emily, whose parents are attentive and consistently respond to her needs. When she cries, her parents feed her or comfort her, which helps her feel safe. This early care fosters a sense of trust in her surroundings, forming the foundation for her future relationships.

Conversely, if a baby’s needs are neglected or inconsistently met, mistrust can develop. A child raised in an unpredictable environment may struggle to feel secure, potentially affecting their relationships and sense of stability later in life.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 Months–3 Years)

Example: Ben is a toddler who’s learning to feed himself and use the potty. His parents encourage his independence by praising his efforts and allowing him to make small choices, like picking his clothes or snacks. This helps Ben feel confident and autonomous.

On the other hand, if parents are overly critical or restrictive, a child might feel shame and doubt. For example, if Ben’s parents scold him for spilling food, he may grow reluctant to try new tasks, fearing failure. This can lead to insecurity and hesitation as he grows.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3–5 Years)

Example: Sarah, a preschooler, loves to play pretend games and explore her imagination. Her teachers encourage her to lead activities, like storytelling and simple crafts, fostering her sense of initiatihttps://www.schooldrillers.com/public-speaking/ve. She learns to take pride in her ideas and feels empowered to initiate activities.

If, however, Sarah’s imagination is stifled by adults who discourage her ideas or criticize her, she may start feeling guilty for expressing herself. This could hinder her ability to take initiative in later stages, making her more passive and dependent on others.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (5–12 Years)

Example: Mark, a fifth-grader, enjoys school and excels in math and sports. His teachers and parents provide positive feedback, which reinforces his self-confidence and encourages him to persevere in his work. This experience builds a sense of industry and a belief in his ability to achieve goals.

Conversely, a child who struggles in school without support might develop feelings of inferiority. If Mark’s efforts were constantly criticized or ignored, he could develop low self-esteem and feel inadequate compared to his peers, impacting his motivation in later life.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 Years)

Example: Lisa, a high school student, is exploring different hobbies, social groups, and possible career paths. Her parents encourage her exploration and help her reflect on her interests and values, which guides her toward a clearer sense of identity.

In contrast, if Lisa felt pressured by her family to follow a path she didn’t resonate with, she might experience role confusion. Without support in finding her identity, she might struggle with indecision, feeling unsure of who she is and what she stands for well into adulthood.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18–40 Years)

Example: James is in his late twenties and has developed a close, trusting relationship with his partner. Through open communication and shared values, they establish a meaningful bond. James’s experience with intimacy strengthens his emotional support system and sense of belonging.

However, if James struggled with unresolved issues from earlier stages, he might find it hard to open up and build intimate relationships. Individuals who struggle with trust may experience loneliness, choosing isolation over vulnerability, which can lead to feelings of isolation and affect their well-being.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40–65 Years)

Example: Maria, a mid-career professional, dedicates herself to mentoring younger colleagues. She finds meaning in helping others and giving back to her community, which fulfills her need for generativity. Maria’s contributions provide a sense of purpose and accomplishment, which enriches her life.

In contrast, a person experiencing stagnation may feel unfulfilled and disconnected, often feeling like their life lacks direction. If Maria were to focus solely on her personal needs without considering others, she might feel stagnant and question the value of her achievements, leading to frustration.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ Years)

Example: After retiring, George reflects on his life and feels content with the relationships he built, the career he enjoyed, and the values he upheld. This sense of integrity provides him with peace and fulfillment in his later years, as he feels his life has been well-lived.

On the contrary, if George were burdened by regrets and unresolved conflicts, he might experience despair. Individuals facing despair often feel bitterness or fear as they confront the end of life, grappling with missed opportunities and unresolved issues.

Erikson’s stages of development provide insight into how people grow and navigate various life challenges. These stages, from trust in infancy to integrity in old age, shape our behaviors, relationships, and sense of self. Real-life examples of these stages highlight the importance of positive experiences and supportive environments in each phase. While challenges may arise, successful resolution of each stage’s conflict can enhance personal growth, preparing individuals to navigate future stages with resilience and confidence.

Understanding Erikson’s theory not only enhances self-awareness but also fosters empathy toward others as we appreciate the lifelong journey each individual undertakes.

Why Development is Essential to Human Growth and Flourishing

Human development is a continuous process that includes moral, social, emotional, mental, and physical maturation. Human survival, prosperity, and well-being depend on this process on both an individual and communal level. While societal growth creates a more wealthy and just world, personal development enables people to realize their potential and improve their lives. Development is essential to the human experience, impacting everything from long-term objectives to daily decisions to the larger social environment. Here, we emphasize the value of development, stressing its advantages and its part in creating a better future.

1. Personal Growth and Self-Actualization

One of the primary reasons development is crucial to humans is that it drives personal growth and the pursuit of self-actualization. Self-actualization, a concept introduced by psychologist Abraham Maslow, refers to realizing one’s full potential and striving to achieve meaningful personal goals. Development enables individuals to identify their strengths, weaknesses, passions, and ambitions, equipping them to pursue fulfilling careers, establish meaningful relationships , and engage in activities that provide a sense of purpose. Without the drive for self-improvement and the opportunity to develop, individuals may experience stagnation, frustration, and a lack of motivation.

For instance, education is a powerful tool for intellectual and emotional growth. By continuously learning and expanding our knowledge, we build critical thinking and problem-solving skills that help us navigate life’s challenges. Similarly, physical development, which begins in infancy and continues throughout adulthood, allows us to perform daily tasks and engage in physical activities that benefit our health and well-being. These various forms of growth contribute to a fuller, more rewarding life.

2. Social and Emotional Well-Being

Development is also critical for fostering social and emotional well-being. From infancy, humans are innately social beings, and our ability to connect and empathize with others plays a fundamental role in our happiness and satisfaction. As we progress through different stages of life, we undergo social development that enables us to form relationships, understand social cues, and manage emotions effectively. In fact, emotional development is a key component in building resilience, which allows individuals to handle stress and recover from life’s inevitable setbacks.

Emotional intelligence—a vital aspect of social development—empowers individuals to recognize and regulate their own emotions, while also understanding and responding to the emotions of others. This skill is essential for forming strong relationships, managing conflicts, and fostering a sense of belonging. People who undergo healthy social and emotional development tend to have better mental health, as they can effectively manage anxiety, depression, and other emotional challenges. Moreover, social connections provide individuals with a support system that offers encouragement and advice, further enhancing emotional resilience and well-being.

3. Adaptation to Society and Culture

Humans live in a complex, interconnected world where cultural and societal norms constantly evolve. Development plays an essential role in helping individuals adapt to these changes, allowing them to become productive and adaptable members of society. From early childhood, we learn values, morals, customs, and social roles that shape our identity and guide our interactions with others. This process, known as socialization, is crucial for building a stable and cohesive society.

For example, children develop social skills and cultural understanding through interactions with family, school, and community, enabling them to function effectively in diverse environments. Later, as adults, we continue to grow by learning to navigate workplaces, new communities, and evolving cultural norms. Development, therefore, allows people to make meaningful contributions to society, whether by participating in civic duties, creating art, or supporting social causes. An individual who adapts well to societal changes is more likely to experience a sense of purpose, belonging, and fulfillment.

4. Economic Stability and Professional Success

Economic development at a personal level is intrinsically linked to broader economic stability and professional success. Through education, skill acquisition, and career development, individuals increase their economic potential, contributing to personal wealth and the economic progress of society. In modern economies, where job markets and technologies are constantly evolving, continuous development is necessary for people to remain employable and competitive.

Professional development, such as obtaining additional certifications or gaining experience in different roles, not only boosts earning potential but also contributes to a sense of accomplishment and job satisfaction. In turn, people who are professionally fulfilled are more productive, innovative, and likely to contribute positively to their workplaces and communities. Furthermore, individuals with the ability to adapt to changes in their fields are better equipped to respond to challenges such as economic recessions, automation, and globalization. This adaptability benefits not only the individual but also contributes to a more resilient economy and society.

5. Improved Health and Longevity

Human development also has a direct impact on physical health and longevity. Physical and cognitive development during childhood and adolescence sets the foundation for a healthy adult life. As people grow and mature, they learn about nutrition, exercise, and other lifestyle choices that contribute to overall well-being. Studies show that education, a vital component of personal development, is strongly correlated with healthier lifestyles and longer life expectancy.

Mental development and lifelong learning are similarly beneficial for cognitive health. Engaging in activities that stimulate the brain—such as reading, learning new skills, and solving puzzles—can help prevent cognitive decline in older adults. Additionally, maintaining a balanced social life and nurturing relationships contribute to mental health, which can positively impact physical health by reducing stress and boosting the immune system. Thus, by promoting healthy habits and cognitive resilience, development plays a vital role in improving quality of life and extending longevity.

6. Contributing to a Better World

Individual development also has a ripple effect on communities and society as a whole. People who grow personally and professionally are more likely to contribute positively to the lives of others, whether through mentorship, volunteering, or civic engagement. Development fosters a sense of responsibility toward others, motivating individuals to make a positive impact in their communities and beyond.

In a broader context, as people grow and evolve, they often become advocates for social justice, environmental sustainability, and global peace. By developing empathy and understanding, individuals can appreciate diverse perspectives and work toward a more inclusive world. A society that encourages and supports personal and social development is more likely to foster innovation, improve living standards, and create a compassionate, cooperative global community.

7. Legacy and Generativity

As people progress through life, they often seek to leave a positive legacy, contributing to future generations’ growth. Development helps individuals feel fulfilled in ways that extend beyond personal achievement, allowing them to give back to society. This concept is reflected in Erikson’s stage of “Generativity vs. Stagnation,” which suggests that in middle adulthood, people often focus on contributing to the welfare of others, mentoring younger individuals, and creating lasting, meaningful impacts.

For example, parents invest in their children’s education, helping to shape the next generation. Educators and mentors, through teaching and guidance, contribute to the knowledge and development of young minds. Development, therefore, extends beyond the individual, creating a ripple effect that strengthens society for generations to come.

In summary, development is crucial to human existence as it enables individuals to reach their potential, adapt to societal changes, and contribute meaningfully to the world. It enhances social and emotional well-being, fosters economic stability, and promotes a healthier, longer life. The benefits of development are cumulative, ultimately building a compassionate, productive society where people support one another’s growth. As humans strive for self-actualization and fulfillment, development will continue to be an essential aspect of personal and societal advancement, shaping a better future for all.

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