physical education research topics for college students

Physical Education Thesis Topics

This page provides a comprehensive list of physical education thesis topics to support students in developing high-quality research on topics related to fitness, sports, and education. Covering current issues, recent trends, and future directions, these topics address key aspects of physical education, including technology integration, mental health, coaching, and curriculum development. Whether students are interested in injury prevention, inclusive sports programs, or promoting lifelong fitness, this list offers diverse and meaningful research ideas aligned with academic and professional goals.

200 Physical Education Thesis Topics and Ideas

The following physical education thesis topics are organized into 10 categories, each addressing vital aspects of physical education. These topics reflect the challenges, trends, and future developments shaping the field today. From physical literacy and mental well-being to injury prevention and sports leadership, these categories cover a wide range of research areas for students. Whether focusing on educational policy, inclusive practices, or technology in sports, these topics offer students ample opportunities to engage with relevant issues and create impactful theses.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. physical literacy and development.

• The role of physical literacy in child development
• Strategies for developing motor skills in early childhood education
• Assessing physical literacy levels in elementary school students
• The impact of physical literacy programs on student well-being
• Integrating physical literacy into the primary school curriculum
• The role of parents in promoting physical literacy
• Gender differences in physical literacy development
• Assessing the effectiveness of outdoor play programs
• Physical literacy and academic performance: A comparative study
• Teacher training programs for developing physical literacy
• Evaluating the role of sports in physical literacy development
• The impact of summer camps on physical skill development
• The relationship between physical literacy and social skills
• Assessing barriers to physical literacy in low-income communities
• The role of dance programs in enhancing physical literacy
• Physical literacy programs for students with special needs
• Physical literacy and lifelong fitness: A longitudinal study
• Assessing physical literacy in virtual physical education programs
• Case studies on the success of school-based physical literacy initiatives
• Future directions in physical literacy education

2. Technology in Physical Education and Sports

• The impact of wearable fitness trackers on student motivation
• Evaluating the effectiveness of virtual coaching tools
• The role of mobile apps in physical education programs
• Integrating gamification in physical education: Best practices
• Assessing the impact of augmented reality (AR) in sports training
• The use of AI-based fitness assessments in physical education
• Teacher attitudes towards technology-enhanced physical education
• The effectiveness of online physical education during COVID-19
• The role of virtual reality (VR) in physical education
• Mobile apps for promoting physical activity in youth
• Wearable technology for injury prevention in school sports
• The impact of video analysis tools on athletic performance
• Evaluating technology’s role in inclusive physical education
• The impact of eSports on physical activity levels in students
• Teacher training for technology integration in sports education
• The role of social media in promoting physical education programs
• Assessing the role of online competitions in student engagement
• Technology-based assessments in physical education: Challenges and solutions
• The future of AI in sports coaching and physical education
• Case studies on successful technology integration in physical education

3. Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation

• Strategies for injury prevention in youth sports
• Assessing the effectiveness of warm-up routines
• The role of physical education in promoting injury prevention awareness
• Evaluating the impact of concussion education programs
• Strategies for managing sports injuries in elementary schools
• The role of physiotherapy in student athlete rehabilitation
• Assessing teacher knowledge of injury prevention practices
• The impact of early intervention on long-term injury outcomes
• Case studies on recovery programs for student athletes
• The role of strength training in injury prevention
• Evaluating return-to-play protocols for injured students
• The psychological impact of sports injuries on students
• Assessing the role of parental support in injury recovery
• The effectiveness of yoga in injury prevention and recovery
• Evaluating the impact of stretching programs in physical education
• Assessing the role of nutrition in injury prevention
• The impact of wearable technology on injury tracking
• Long-term effects of childhood sports injuries: A follow-up study
• The role of school nurses in injury management
• Future directions in injury prevention and rehabilitation in schools

4. Inclusive Physical Education and Adapted Sports

• Strategies for promoting inclusion in physical education
• Teacher perceptions of adapted physical education programs
• Evaluating the impact of inclusive sports on student engagement
• Case studies on peer support programs in adapted sports
• The role of assistive technology in adapted physical education
• Assessing barriers to inclusion in physical education programs
• The role of teacher training in inclusive physical education
• Evaluating the impact of inclusive policies on school sports
• Parental involvement in adapted physical education programs
• The psychological impact of inclusion in physical education
• The role of inclusive sports in promoting social skills
• Evaluating the effectiveness of Paralympic education programs
• Case studies on inclusive sports events in schools
• Assessing student attitudes toward inclusive physical education
• The role of adapted physical education in promoting mental health
• Comparing traditional and adapted physical education programs
• Evaluating the impact of inclusion on athletic performance
• The role of peer mentoring in inclusive physical education
• Strategies for engaging students with autism in sports
• Future trends in inclusive physical education

5. Mental Health and Well-Being Through Physical Activity

• The impact of physical education on student mental health
• Evaluating the role of yoga in promoting emotional well-being
• Assessing the effectiveness of mindfulness programs in physical education
• The psychological benefits of team sports for elementary students
• Physical activity and its impact on reducing anxiety in children
• The role of outdoor physical education in mental health promotion
• Evaluating the effectiveness of physical activity breaks in classrooms
• Assessing the role of physical education in stress management
• The impact of sports participation on student self-esteem
• Strategies for promoting emotional well-being through fitness programs
• The role of physical education in promoting social connections
• Evaluating physical education programs for at-risk youth
• The relationship between physical activity and cognitive function
• Assessing the impact of dance programs on emotional regulation
• Teacher perceptions of mental health education in physical education
• The role of physical education in reducing bullying incidents
• Evaluating strategies for promoting resilience through sports
• The impact of individualized fitness plans on well-being
• Parental involvement in promoting mental health through physical activity
• Future trends in mental health and physical education integration

6. Gender Equality and Participation in Sports

• Strategies for promoting gender equality in school sports programs
• Evaluating the impact of Title IX on girls’ participation in sports
• Gender stereotypes and their influence on children’s sports choices
• Teacher attitudes toward gender-neutral physical education
• Assessing the effectiveness of coeducational sports programs
• Parental support and its impact on girls’ participation in sports
• Case studies on successful female sports teams in elementary schools
• Exploring barriers to girls’ involvement in competitive sports
• The role of physical education in breaking gender stereotypes
• Evaluating participation differences between boys and girls in PE
• Strategies for engaging boys in non-traditional sports activities
• The impact of media portrayals on children’s sports interests
• Teacher training programs for promoting gender equity in PE
• Assessing student perceptions of gender in physical education
• The role of school policies in fostering gender inclusion in sports
• Case studies on inclusive sports initiatives for LGBTQ+ students
• Analyzing the impact of mixed-gender sports teams on cooperation
• Strategies for promoting leadership among girls in sports
• Gender-based differences in motivation for physical activity
• Future trends in promoting gender equality in school sports

7. Coaching and Leadership in Physical Education

• The impact of coaching styles on student athletic performance
• Teacher perceptions of leadership development in physical education
• Assessing the effectiveness of peer coaching programs
• The role of mentorship in developing young athletes
• Exploring the connection between leadership skills and sports
• Case studies on successful youth sports coaching programs
• Evaluating strategies for coaching inclusive sports teams
• The impact of motivational coaching on student self-esteem
• Teacher professional development for leadership in sports education
• Comparing authoritarian and democratic coaching styles
• The role of captains in fostering teamwork in elementary sports
• Exploring the impact of leadership training on student athletes
• Assessing the effectiveness of character-building sports programs
• Case studies on leadership development in PE curricula
• The role of sports coaches in mental health promotion
• Evaluating the impact of volunteer coaching programs
• The influence of leadership skills on student behavior in sports
• The role of goal-setting in sports leadership development
• Strategies for promoting leadership in young female athletes
• Future directions in leadership development through physical education

8. Sports Science and Athletic Performance

• Assessing the impact of nutrition on student athletic performance
• The role of sleep in sports performance among young athletes
• Evaluating the effectiveness of strength training programs in schools
• Case studies on the impact of interval training on endurance
• The role of biomechanics in improving sports performance
• Assessing injury prevention strategies through sports science
• The influence of hydration on athletic performance
• Teacher perspectives on integrating sports science in PE curricula
• The role of flexibility training in injury prevention
• Evaluating the impact of sports psychology on young athletes
• Assessing student engagement with performance tracking tools
• Case studies on early specialization in youth sports
• The role of recovery protocols in school sports programs
• Evaluating the impact of resistance training on strength development
• Strategies for promoting sports performance through fitness assessments
• The role of genetics in student athletic performance
• Assessing the impact of cross-training on youth athletes
• The future of wearable technology in sports performance
• Evaluating student attitudes toward sports science in PE
• Future trends in integrating sports science into physical education

9. Physical Education Curriculum and Policy

• Evaluating the effectiveness of physical education policies in schools
• The role of state standards in shaping PE curricula
• Comparing physical education curricula across different countries
• Case studies on implementing innovative PE programs
• The impact of reduced PE time on student health outcomes
• Strategies for aligning PE programs with academic goals
• Teacher perspectives on curriculum flexibility in physical education
• Assessing the role of PE in holistic child development
• The impact of physical education on student attendance and behavior
• The role of student feedback in developing PE curricula
• Evaluating the success of interdisciplinary PE programs
• Strategies for promoting physical activity through curriculum design
• The impact of standardized assessments in physical education
• Exploring the relationship between PE policy and student well-being
• The role of government funding in promoting physical education
• Assessing teacher autonomy in curriculum development
• Case studies on integrating SEL into PE curricula
• Evaluating the role of partnerships in expanding PE opportunities
• The future of PE curricula in virtual and hybrid learning environments
• Future policy trends in promoting physical education in schools

10. The Role of Physical Education in Promoting Lifelong Fitness

• Assessing the effectiveness of fitness education programs
• The impact of physical education on lifelong physical activity habits
• Teacher perspectives on promoting lifelong fitness in elementary schools
• Case studies on successful lifelong fitness programs
• Strategies for fostering intrinsic motivation for fitness in students
• The role of goal-setting in developing lifelong fitness habits
• Assessing parental involvement in promoting lifelong physical activity
• The role of school-community partnerships in fitness education
• Exploring the relationship between early PE experiences and adult fitness
• Evaluating student perceptions of lifelong fitness education
• The impact of fitness tracking tools on student motivation
• Case studies on fitness programs for at-risk youth
• The role of outdoor education in lifelong fitness development
• Evaluating the impact of PE on reducing sedentary behavior
• The role of physical education in promoting mental health awareness
• Strategies for integrating fitness goals into PE curricula
• Assessing the impact of after-school fitness programs
• The role of social support in lifelong physical activity
• Evaluating the effectiveness of self-directed fitness programs
• Future directions in promoting lifelong fitness through PE

These physical education thesis topics provide students with diverse opportunities to engage with meaningful research that addresses real-world challenges in the field. Whether exploring the benefits of technology, inclusive sports programs, or mental health initiatives, these topics allow students to contribute to the advancement of physical education practices. By selecting a topic aligned with personal interests and future goals, students can create impactful research that benefits both their academic journey and the field of physical education.

The Range of Physical Education Thesis Topics

Physical education plays a fundamental role in promoting physical health, social interaction, and mental well-being among students. As schools seek to integrate fitness programs into curricula, research in this field becomes increasingly relevant. Exploring the diverse range of physical education thesis topics allows students to investigate key issues, contribute to innovative solutions, and address future challenges. This article delves into various research areas within physical education, focusing on current issues, emerging trends, and future directions that provide a solid foundation for impactful academic work.

Current Issues in Physical Education

Many of today’s physical education thesis topics revolve around addressing challenges that impact both educators and students. One significant issue is the decline in physical activity levels among children and adolescents. With the rise of sedentary lifestyles and the increased use of screens, schools are struggling to engage students in regular physical activity. Research in this area could explore strategies to motivate children to be more active, assess the effectiveness of school fitness programs, or examine the impact of limited physical activity on student well-being.

Another pressing issue is teacher preparedness and professional development in physical education. Many educators feel underprepared to implement inclusive physical education practices or integrate modern technologies into their lessons. Thesis topics could analyze the effectiveness of teacher training programs, evaluate professional development workshops, or assess how well teachers adapt to new curricular standards.

Budget constraints also remain a critical challenge for physical education programs, especially in public schools. As resources are reallocated toward other academic subjects, many physical education programs face cutbacks. Research could focus on strategies for improving PE outcomes with limited resources, examine the impact of budget cuts on student fitness, or investigate the role of community partnerships in supplementing physical education.

Additionally, mental health issues among students are gaining attention within the field. Physical education is increasingly recognized as an essential component in promoting mental well-being. Thesis topics could explore the role of physical activity in reducing anxiety and depression, investigate the effectiveness of yoga and mindfulness practices, or assess the relationship between team sports and emotional regulation. These areas represent a valuable avenue for students to pursue meaningful physical education thesis topics that address current challenges.

Recent Trends in Physical Education

Emerging trends have brought new opportunities for innovation in physical education. One notable trend is the integration of technology into physical education programs. Schools are using wearable fitness trackers, mobile apps, and virtual coaching tools to monitor student activity and engagement. Research in this area could examine the effectiveness of gamified learning in PE, evaluate the role of virtual reality (VR) in fitness programs, or assess the impact of wearable technology on student motivation. These physical education thesis topics reflect how technology can transform traditional approaches to fitness education.

Another important trend is the growing emphasis on social-emotional learning (SEL) within physical education. Schools are beginning to recognize that PE programs can help students develop emotional intelligence, resilience, and teamwork skills. Thesis topics could investigate how SEL frameworks are incorporated into PE lessons, evaluate the impact of physical activity on social skills development, or compare different approaches to integrating SEL into fitness programs.

Inclusive physical education is also a major focus, as schools strive to create equitable environments for students of all abilities. Adapted sports and inclusive PE programs allow children with physical or cognitive challenges to participate alongside their peers. Relevant thesis topics include evaluating the impact of inclusive PE on student engagement, assessing the effectiveness of peer support programs, or analyzing teacher attitudes toward adapted sports. These areas highlight how physical education thesis topics can address the growing demand for equity in education.

STEM education (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) is being integrated with physical education in creative ways, particularly through robotics and biomechanics. Some schools are using technology to teach students about the science of movement, allowing them to analyze athletic performance through data collection. Thesis topics could explore how STEM and PE programs intersect, assess the role of biomechanics in sports education, or examine student attitudes toward technology-enhanced physical education. These interdisciplinary approaches reflect the evolving nature of physical education thesis topics.

Future Directions in Physical Education

The future of physical education promises exciting developments that will shape how schools promote fitness and well-being. One key area is the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to personalize fitness programs. AI-powered platforms can create individualized exercise plans based on a student’s needs, preferences, and progress. Thesis topics might explore the effectiveness of AI-driven fitness interventions, investigate the ethical implications of AI in education, or assess how AI can support teacher-led physical education programs.

Environmental sustainability is another emerging area within physical education. Schools are beginning to adopt sustainable practices, such as promoting outdoor fitness programs and using eco-friendly sports equipment. Relevant physical education thesis topics could include evaluating the impact of outdoor education on student engagement, exploring strategies for incorporating sustainability into PE curricula, or assessing the role of physical education in fostering environmental awareness among students.

The integration of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) into physical education is also on the horizon. These technologies can create immersive learning experiences that engage students in unique ways. For example, AR tools can enhance fitness challenges by overlaying virtual elements in real-world environments, while VR allows students to participate in simulated sports activities. Thesis topics in this area could investigate the impact of immersive technologies on student motivation, explore the challenges of implementing AR/VR in schools, or analyze the effectiveness of virtual fitness programs in promoting physical activity.

Global initiatives promoting lifelong fitness are expected to shape future PE policies. Schools are increasingly focusing on teaching students the importance of maintaining healthy habits throughout life. Thesis topics might explore the effectiveness of early fitness interventions, assess how PE programs promote lifelong physical activity, or analyze the role of community partnerships in encouraging fitness beyond the classroom. These future-oriented physical education thesis topics emphasize the importance of preparing students for long-term health and wellness.

The diverse range of physical education thesis topics reflects the evolving landscape of fitness education. Current challenges such as declining physical activity levels, teacher preparedness, and budget constraints offer valuable opportunities for research that addresses real-world problems. Recent trends, including technology integration, social-emotional learning, and inclusive practices, demonstrate how physical education continues to adapt to meet the needs of modern students. Looking ahead, advancements in AI, sustainability, and immersive technologies promise to reshape physical education programs, offering exciting new directions for research.

By selecting a topic that aligns with their interests and career goals, students can develop impactful research that contributes to the advancement of physical education practices. Whether exploring current issues or investigating future trends, these physical education thesis topics provide students with the opportunity to engage with meaningful academic work that makes a lasting impact on education and society.

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Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Published by Grace Graffin at January 5th, 2023 , Revised On July 9, 2024

Due to the growing importance of physical education, a majority of educational institutions have introduced it as a subject that students can choose as their major for their graduation. However, what comes with it is submitting a dissertation to complete your degree.

As a student of physical education, you might be in limbo as to which topic you should choose for your dissertation that is unique and relevant. After all, your future is dependent on it. Choosing the right dissertation topic is the first step toward writing a powerful dissertation that is accepted by your professors.

When choosing a physical education dissertation topic, you need to keep in mind that the topic is current, unique and adds value to what you have learned. To help you with the process of choosing the right topic, this blog contains a list of physical education dissertation topics.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the problem, research question, aim and objectives, literature review, and the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our example dissertation to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

You can review step by step guide on how to write your dissertation here .

Also read: Education dissertation topics , healthcare dissertation topics , and nursing dissertation topics .

Latest Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: investigating the impacts of improving physical education in schools on the development of children’s confidence, endurance and quick integration capability..

Research Aim: The present study aims to investigate the impacts of improving physical education in schools for developing children’s confidence, endurance, and quick integration capability.

Objectives:

• To analyse the importance of physical education in schools for proper growth of children.
• To examine how advanced physical education in schools helps children to develop their confidence, endurance, and quick integration capacity.
• To recommend what can be involved in physical education for improvement that may help develop confidence, endurance, and quick integration capacity of children.

Topic 2: Analysing different types of fine motor activities to help myriad health issues – a study on autistic children in the UK.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explain different types of fine motor activities that help address various health issues, as this study will specifically focus on autistic children in the UK.

• To share comprehensive knowledge about different types of fine motor activities.
• To explain the benefits of practising fine motor activities in addressing different health issues referring to the problem of autism in children in the UK.
• To provide a set of recommendations for the advancement of fine motor activities to address the health problem of autistic children in the UK.

Topic 3: Examining the significance of integrating physical education in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explicate the significance of integrating physical education into the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

• To explain the benefits of physical education in school for the growth of students.
• To comprehend the importance of integrating physical education in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.
• To share ideas about how physical education can be integrated and practised in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

Topic 4: A study on the use of health rate monitors and health tracking to support the practices of advanced physical education.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explicate the usefulness of heath rate monitors and health tracking that support the practices of advanced physical education.

• To describe the usefulness of health rate monitors and health tracking equipment.
• To interpret the role of health monitors and health tracking to support improved practices in physical education.
• To recommend strategies for how health rate monitors and health tracking can be used to get the best possible results in physical education.

Topic 5: Exploring the increasing trend of computer-based fitness programs in the UK – a study on people’s changing behaviour during lockdown.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explore the increasing trend of computer-based fitness programs in the UK and will focus on people’s changing behaviour during the lockdown.

• To explain the effectiveness of computer-based fitness programs and their health benefits.
• To examine how computer-based fitness programs are becoming an increasing trend and popular during the lockdown.
• To suggest strategies for advanced computer-based fitness programs that can help address the changing behaviour of people during the lockdown.

More Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: modern physical education versus the traditional physical education – a comparison.

Research Aim: The main aim of this research will be to compare the traditional physical education programs and the ones in place today. The research will start by talking about the traditional physical education programs and then introduce the ones that are being practised today. It will then move towards comparing programs one by one. The research will use a secondary data collection method to analyse already published data and conclude which physical education is better.

Topic 2: Assessing the Impact of Physical Education on Mental Health

Research Aim: This research will aim to explore the impact of physical education on mental health. There is a lot of evidence that physical education has a positive impact on the mental health of individuals, and this research will aim to assess the impact of the same. Existing research will be analysed in order to do an in-depth study into the impact of physical education on mental health.

Topic 3: Analysing Student Behavior and Engagement in Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: Physical Education classes have been a part of the academic system for years now; however, the understanding and concept of this education are changing. More and more institutions are now emphasising these classes and promoting physical education among students. This research will explore student behaviour and engagement in physical education classes and will suggest effective ways to enhance and increase engagement.

Topic 4: Planning Physical Education Programs to Produce Effective Results

Research Aim: The main aim of this research will be to understand how physical education programs should be planned in order to produce results that are effective for students. The study will assess currently planned programs in order to evaluate how these should be changed for the better and how they can help produce effective results.

Topic 5: Role of Teachers in Enhancing Students’ Engagement in Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim : Teachers always play an important role in academics. This research will explore how important teachers are in physical education in enhancing students’ engagement towards exercise. Given the benefits of physical education, it is essential for teachers to make sure that the right strategies are devised to drive students’ engagement, and the same will be assessed and analysed in this research. The study will also provide effective strategies that teachers should implement in order to produce effective results from student engagement.

Topic 6: Should Physical Education Lessons Differ for Males and Females?

Research Aim: A lot is argued about the physical education curriculum and that lessons should differ for males and females. This research will deep dive into the different lessons that are offered, and based on the analysis, the research will conclude if lessons should differ for males and females. The study will be based on secondary data.

Topic 7: Do Physical Education Classes Promote the Importance of a Healthy Lifestyle?

Research Aim: It is believed that physical education classes promote a healthy lifestyle; however, there is no authentic evidence. This research will aim to prove whether physical education promotes a healthy lifestyle or not. In either case, the research will analyse the impact of physical education on individuals’ lifestyles and how it helps them improve their way of living.

Topic 8: Physical Education and Technology – How Well do the Two Integrate?

Research Aim: Just like other forms of education, physical education and technology integrate well together. With the help of technology, physical education is offered using various aids, for example, visual aids, online classes, examples videos available online and much more. This research will assess how well physical education is offered with the help of technology and how it helps individuals gain access to effective lessons.

Topic 9: Assessing the Effectiveness of Virtual Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: Online physical education classes have emerged popular in the past year. With the pandemic’s major reason, virtual classes have opened a new avenue for physical education classes. This research will aim to assess how effective virtual physical education classes have been and how they have helped in enhancing students’ engagement and interest in these classes.

Topic 10: Accountability in Physical Education Lessons – How do Students Respond?

Research Aim: Just like all other classes hold students responsible and accountable for their learning, physical education should also follow the same pattern. While a lot of people argue against this, this research will weigh both sides. It will discuss and assess the pros and cons of holding students accountable for their physical education and will also talk about how students respond to accountability in these classes.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Topic 11: Devising Strategies for Different Levels of Physical Education

Research Aim: This research will discuss the various strategies that are needed for devising physical education lessons for different classes. The study will talk about how different grades require a different level of physical education and will then present useful strategies that teachers can devise according to the grade and students’ age.

Topic 12: Should Universities Include Physical Education Lessons in their Curriculum?

Research Aim: Usually, physical education is not a part of universities’ curriculum. It is found in schools’ curricula or colleges, at best. This research will argue whether physical education should be introduced in all universities or not. It will present arguments for both sides, and based on the debate, the study will conclude as to whether introducing physical education in all universities’ curriculum is feasible or not.

Topic 13: Assessing Different Physical Education Teaching Styles and their Impact on Students

Research Aim: Just like the regular subject teachers, physical education teachers also have their own style, and each teacher is different from the other. This research will talk about the set of characteristics and traits that a physical education teacher should possess in order to produce results. The study will also assess the impact of different teaching styles on students to give an in-depth idea as to which style is effective and should be adopted.

Topic 14: Exploring the Challenges in Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim: Physical education comes with its own set of challenges. Not all students are interested in taking these classes; some of them are irregular, some do not respond well, and others do not take instructions seriously. On the flip side, there are challenges related to the instructors as well. This research will discuss challenges on both sides of the coin and will suggest how these challenges can be handled effectively.

Topic 15: Understanding the association between Counseling and Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim: Physical education is often linked to mental health. A lot of people argue that physical education is essential for people seeking help for their mental health. Thus, this research will go a step ahead and will aim to understand the relationship between counselling and physical education. It will aim to conduct interviews with people who are attending counselling sessions as well as physical education lessons to improve their mental health.

Topic 16: Diet, Physical Education, and Health – How are the three interlinked?

Research Aim: A common misconception is that physical education is all about exercise and sports. This research will aim to bust this myth and show how diet and overall health (mental and physical) are linked to physical education. The study will discuss how the three go hand-in-hand and how one leads to another.

Topic 17: Does Physical Education Enhance Students’ Academic Career?

Research Aim: While physical education does improve an individual’s well-being, does it enhance a student’s academic career as well? This research will aim to understand the same. This thesis will explore how physical education can or cannot help a student achieve his/her academic goals.

Topic 18: Impact of Physical Education on Personality Development – An Analysis

Research Aim: Physical education builds character and develops an individual’s personality, as well. This research will analyse the same and understand how physical education helps in personality development and why educational institutions emphasise and include physical education in their curriculum. The study will assess students who are a part of physical education lessons versus students who are only involved in academics and will then compare the results.

Topic 19: Studying the Impact of Introducing Physical Education in Students’ Early Years

Research Aim: Physical education should be introduced early in a student’s academic life. This is argued by a lot of physical education proponents. This research will study this claim and find out how effective it is for students to be introduced to physical education early in their academic life.

Topic 20: Comparing the Benefits and Challenges of Physical Education

Research Aim: Not many people favour physical education as a subject in schools and colleges. This research will aim to compare the benefits and challenges of physical education lessons by discussing the pros and cons. It will then conclude whether physical education is beneficial for students or not.

Topic 21: The Role of Gender in Employing Physical Education

Research Aim: This research investigates the influence of gender on employment patterns, opportunities, and challenges within the field of physical education. The study focuses on understanding disparities and potential strategies for achieving greater gender equity in employment.

Topic 22: The Impact of Physical Education in Reducing Obesity in Students

Research Aim: This study examines the effectiveness of physical education programs in reducing obesity among students. The research also explores the various components of these programs, such as curriculum design, duration, intensity, and extracurricular support. It aims to identify the key factors that contribute to successful obesity reduction outcomes and to provide evidence-based recommendations for optimising physical education interventions to combat obesity effectively in school-aged children.

Topic 23: Exploring the Impact of Visual Aids in PE Teaching

Research Aim: This study investigates the impact of incorporating visual aids in physical education (PE) teaching practices. It seeks to explore how visual aids, like videos influence student engagement and the overall effectiveness of PE instruction. Additionally, the research aims to identify best practices for integrating visual aids into PE curriculum and pedagogy. It offers insights to enhance teaching methods and improve the learning experience for students in physical education settings.

Topic 24: Investigating the Impact of Virtual Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: This research investigates the impact of virtual physical education (PE) classes on student engagement and physical activity levels. It seeks to explore how virtual PE instruction affects achieving learning outcomes comparable to traditional in-person classes. The study further examines virtual PE’s potential benefits and challenges, including accessibility, technology integration, and instructor-student interactions. 

Topic 25: An Analysis of the Physical and Mental Health of Students After PE

Research Aim: This study aims to conduct an analysis of the physical and mental health outcomes of students following participation in physical education (PE) classes. It explores the immediate and long-term effects of PE on physical fitness, cardiovascular health, mental well-being, and academic performance. Additionally, it explores factors influencing these outcomes, such as the intensity and duration of PE sessions and instructor effectiveness. 

Topic 26: Exploring the Need for Physical Education at the College Level to Improve the Mental Health of Students

Research Aim: This research explores the importance of physical education (PE) programs at the college level in enhancing the mental health of students. It investigates the benefits of incorporating physical activity into college curricula, including its impact on stress reduction, mood regulation, and overall psychological well-being. The research also identifies barriers and facilitators to implementing PE initiatives in higher education settings and assesses student attitudes and perceptions towards such programs. 

Topic 27: Investigating How Physical Activity Can Improve the Immune System in Adults

Research Aim: This study investigates the relationship between physical activity and immune system function in adults. It explores the impact of regular exercise on various aspects of immune function, including immune cell activity and susceptibility to infectious diseases. Additionally, the research examines mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory effects of physical activity, such as changes in inflammation levels and metabolic health.

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71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best physical education topic ideas & essay examples, 🔎 interesting topics to write about physical education, 📑 good research topics about physical education.

• Keeping Physical Education in Schools Apart from participating in the physical education programs, the students need to be taught on the importance of the various exercises so that they inculcate the culture of physical fitness into their life-time fitness programs.
• Role of Parents in Physical Education and Sport The involvement of parents in physical education and sports is viewed differently in regard to how it affects the child’s participation in sports even later in life.
• Physical Education and Its Benefits Schools in particular know the benefits of physical education in a student’s life and should be able to fight for the children’s rights.
• Adaptive Physical Education The value of the brochure developed for the informational purpose is attributed to the need to communicate the importance of APE and point out the value that it could bring to children with special needs.
• Physical Education: Effect of Phototherapy Therefore, it is evident that the intensity of an exercise directly influences one’s heart rate, breathing rate, skin coloration, sweating, and recovery.
• Bodies in Physical Education The purpose of this study is to investigate how students view the construction of their bodies in relation to physical education and how students’ meanings of their bodies affect their participation or resistance to physical […]
• Effectiveness of Physical Education Provisions in the UK School The vital need for health promotion, especially in terms of secondary education has been highlighted by the science of epidemiology the study of factors that influence the health and illnesses of people.
• British Development of Sport and Physical Education in the Last 25 Years Sport England wishes to increase participation in sports through community sports activities, sporting completions providing and training coaches and officiators, and closely working with the Youth Sport Trust and UK Sports formed in 1996 to […]
• Physical Education: Personal Physical Exercise Plan Given the necessity of taking fluids, it is good to identify and avail the same before starting a physical exercise session.
• Health Teaching and Physical Education Lesson Plan Students will be able to dribble a ball with a hand paying attention to such principles as dribbling on the side, waist-high, pushing the ball down, and eyes lookup.
• Physical Educators Attitude to Special Needs Children Sue Combs, together with her colleagues from the University of North Carolina, investigated the attitudes of the physical education teachers towards the inclusion of children with special needs in their lessons.
• Physical Education Curriculum Physical education has significantly contributed towards the realization of the school philosophy as it helps in the development of the physical aspects of the students.
• The Usefulness of Physical Education in Modern Education Varied criticism adds to the debate on the usefulness of PE in modern education and the need to change current approaches. This indicates the need to focus the debate on the meaning of PE to […]
• The Nature and Values of Physical Education In the past, physical education was considered to consist of only physical and practical activities, however, the recent research has justified that physical education can be included in the curriculum on the basis of scientific […]
• Should Public Schools Be Required to Restore Physical Education Classes to the Curriculum? The occurrence of obesity prevalence in children, in the U S, can be associated with the removal of physical education courses in public school curriculum.
• Physical Education within Elementary Schools One of the benefits of the physical education is the level of physical fitness that it induces to the students. The manner in which these students are introduced to physical education and the way that […]
• Effects of Physical Education on Brain These neurons are usually created in a place called the hippocampus, which happens to be the section of the brain involved in learning and storage of memory.
• Elementary School Curriculum and Physical Education
• Should Physical Education Be a Required Class in College?
• Physical Education Class: The Perfect Place to Be Bullied
• Pros and Cons of Physical Education
• How Physical Education Should Be Taught
• Physical Education for Elementary School Students
• Weight-Related Barriers for Overweight Students in an Elementary Physical Education Classroom
• Physical Education Lesson Plan and Activity Ideas
• Motivation, Discipline, and Academic Performance in Physical Education
• Adaptive Physical Education for Students With Special Needs
• Physical Education Should Not Be Mandated
• How Technology Enhances the Physical Education Curriculum
• Physical Education: Standards, Cooperative Skills, and Learning Theories
• Physical Education’s Contribution to Public Health
• Physical Education Importance for Child Development
• Reasons to Keep Physical Education in the National Curriculum
• Ethical Relativism and Its Impact on Physical Education
• Inclusive School Physical Education and Physical Activity
• History and Benefits of Physical Education: Why I Want to Be a P.E. Teacher
• Physical Education Beyond the Middle School
• The Importance of Physical Education in Childhood Obesity
• Physical Activity Promotion and School Physical Education
• Implementing the TARGET Model in Physical Education: Effects on Perceived Psychobiosocial and Motivational States in Girls
• Teaching the Nuts and Bolts of Physical Education
• Health-Related Intensity Profiles for Physical Education Classes
• Anticipated Benefits From a Basic College Physical Education Activity Course
• Physical Education Should Be Graded on Effort, Not Ability
• Motivation and Intention to Be Physically Active in Physical Education Students
• Personal Development, Health, and Physical Education
• Why Physical Education Should Be Included in the School Curriculum
• Attitude and Teacher’s Qualification as Factors Affecting Students’ Participation in Physical Education Activities
• Burnout in Physical Education Teachers
• What Benefits Physical Activity Has on Academic Performance
• SPARK Physical Education Curriculum Program
• Changing the National Curriculum for Physical Education
• Physical Education: Official School Policy
• How Physical Education Helps to Develop Your Personality
• Early Childhood Development: Physical Education Program Effects
• Fun Physical Education Games for High School Students
• How Extracurricular Sports Should Satisfy State Physical Education Requirements
• One’s Readiness to Self-Development Through Physical Education
• Would More Physical Education Reduce Obesity in the Youths?
• Goal-Directed Physical Education for Learners With Disabilities
• Health and Physical Education: Volleyball
• Managing the Physical Education Classroom
• Strategies to Accommodate Autism Spectrum Disorder Students in General Physical Education
• Physical Education vs. School Sports: What’s the Difference?
• The Impact of School Budgetary Cuts on Physical Education
• Teaching Health and Physical Education in Australian Schools
• Positive Reinforcement Techniques in Physical Education
• Child Development Research Ideas
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• Football Topics
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126 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Physical education is an important aspect of education that focuses on the development of physical fitness and skills through various physical activities. It helps students understand the importance of leading a healthy and active lifestyle while also promoting teamwork, sportsmanship, and discipline. When it comes to writing essays on physical education, there are a plethora of topics that students can explore. Here are 126 physical education essay topic ideas and examples to help you get started:

• The benefits of physical education in schools
• The role of physical education in promoting mental health
• The impact of physical education on academic performance
• The importance of physical education for children with disabilities
• The history of physical education in schools
• The relationship between physical education and obesity
• The benefits of incorporating technology in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting lifelong fitness
• The importance of physical education for overall well-being
• The benefits of team sports in physical education
• The impact of physical education on social skills development
• The role of physical education in preventing chronic diseases
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s cognitive development
• The importance of physical education for stress management
• The impact of physical education on self-esteem
• The benefits of including dance in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting healthy lifestyle choices
• The importance of physical education for motor skills development
• The benefits of outdoor activities in physical education
• The impact of physical education on physical literacy
• The role of physical education in promoting gender equality in sports
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s emotional well-being
• The importance of physical education for developing leadership skills
• The impact of physical education on academic motivation
• The benefits of incorporating mindfulness in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting cultural diversity
• The importance of physical education for teaching sportsmanship
• The benefits of including yoga in physical education classes
• The impact of physical education on body image
• The role of physical education in promoting inclusivity in sports
• The importance of physical education for teaching teamwork
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s social development
• The impact of physical education on physical fitness levels
• The role of physical education in promoting environmental awareness
• The benefits of including nutrition education in physical education classes
• The importance of physical education for teaching resilience
• The impact of physical education on time management skills
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s creativity
• The role of physical education in promoting healthy competition
• The importance of physical education for teaching conflict resolution skills
• The benefits of including mindfulness in physical education classes
• The impact of physical education on academic achievement
• The role of physical education in promoting emotional intelligence
• The importance of physical education for teaching goal setting
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s self-regulation
• The impact of physical education on self-efficacy
• The role of physical education in promoting teamwork skills
• The importance of physical education for teaching decision-making
• The impact of physical education on self-confidence
• The role of physical education in promoting creativity
• The importance of physical education for developing problem-solving skills
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s resilience
• The impact of physical education on emotional regulation
• The role of physical education in promoting positive body image
• The importance of physical education for teaching conflict resolution
• The impact of physical education on social skills
• The role of physical education in promoting empathy
• The importance of physical education for developing leadership qualities
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s teamwork skills
• The impact of physical education on communication skills
• The role of physical education in promoting problem-solving abilities
• The importance of physical education for developing resilience

In conclusion, physical education is a crucial component of a well-rounded education that promotes physical fitness, mental health, social skills, and overall well-being. By exploring these physical education essay topics and examples, students can gain a deeper understanding of the importance of physical education and its impact on various aspects of their lives. Whether you choose to focus on the benefits of physical education for cognitive development, social skills, or physical fitness, there are endless possibilities for exploring this important subject in your essays.

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Physical education (PE) is an educational discipline that focuses on physical activities, mental growth and the overall well-being of the students. Western schools offer physical education from an early age to make students' minds and bodies fit. Students may need understandable and informative physical education dissertation topics for their assignments.

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51 Kinesiology Research Topics for College Students [2024]

• Post author By Ankit
• February 7, 2024

Kinesiology is the study of human action and physical activity. Research in kinesiology is vital to knowing how our bodies work during training and sport. 

As college students interested in this field, we should know how research can improve performance, stop injury, and help people live healthier lives. 

Studying biomechanics, motor control, exercise physiology, sports psychology, and nutrition science can give us new insights. However, doing live research projects in kinesiology classes is a great way to gain skills. 

There are many engaging queries to explore through kinesiology research on your campuses. But, getting involved will prepare us for future careers improving health and human movement. Let’s go and find the top kinesiology research topics for college students.

Also Read: 130+ Mental Health Research Topics for High School Students: Unlocking Minds

Table of Contents

Trending Kinesiology Research Topics for College Students

Here are some of the trending kinesiology research topics for college students.

Exercise Physiology

• How does daily exercise impact our heart health?
• What are the effects of various types of exercise on metabolism?
• How does exercise impact lung function and respiratory fitness?
• Probing the links between exercise and immune system function.
• Studying the results of exercise on blood sugar levels in people with diabetes.
• How does exercise affect bone density and lower the risk of osteoporosis?
• The role of training in improving mental function and brain health.
• Examining the physiological adaptations to resistance training.
• How does exercise affect the body’s ability to control temperature?
• Investigating the impact of exercise on hormonal balance and stress reduction.

Biomechanics

• Studying the mechanics of running and factors affecting running performance.
• How does footwear choice affect walking and running biomechanics?
• Exploring the biomechanics of lifting methods and injury prevention.
• Analyzing the biomechanics of different sports movements like throwing and jumping.
• The role of biomechanics in optimizing swimming strokes for efficiency.
• How do body mechanics influence posture and the risk of musculoskeletal injuries?
• Exploring the biomechanics of balance and stability during various activities.
• Investigating the impact of aging on gait biomechanics and fall risk.
• The biomechanics of cycling: understanding pedal stroke mechanics and efficiency.
• How do ergonomics and biomechanics intersect in workplace design and injury prevention?

Sports Psychology

• Exploring the psychological factors influencing motivation for exercise and sports participation.
• Investigating the role of goal setting in enhancing sports performance.
• How does visualization and mental imagery affect athletic performance?
• The psychological impact of injuries on athletes’ mental health and recovery.
• Exploring the links between personality traits and athletic success.
• Examining the effects of stress management methods on sports performance.
• How does self-confidence impact performance in sports and exercise?
• Examining the psychological benefits of team sports participation.
• Investigating the role of self-talk and mindset in crushing performance barriers.
• The impact of coach-athlete connections on motivation and performance.

Exercise Prescription and Programming

• Exploring the usefulness of different workout routines for weight loss.
• Analyzing the optimal exercise prescription for improving cardiovascular health.
• How does exercise intensity affect fat metabolism and calorie cost?
• The role of resistance activity in building muscle strength and endurance.
• Exploring the benefits of HIIT for fitness improvement.
• Investigating the effects of exercise frequency and duration on fitness outcomes.
• How does exercise vary in effectiveness based on age and fitness level?
• Exploring the importance of proper warm-up and cool-down routines in injury prevention.
• Studying the role of periodization in optimizing training adaptations.
• The impact of cross-training on overall fitness and injury risk reduction.

Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation

• Studying the effectiveness of different rehabilitation exercises for common injuries.
• Exploring the role of physical therapy in post-surgical recovery.
• Investigating the benefits of aquatic therapy for rehabilitation and pain management.
• The effect of manual therapy methods on pain relief and mobility improvement.
• Exploring the use of assistive devices and technology in physical rehabilitation.
• Investigating the role of exercise in managing chronic pain conditions.
• Exploring the psychological parts of injury rehabilitation and return to activity.
• Investigating the usefulness of balance training programs for fall prevention.
• The significance of physical therapy in helping older adults move better and improve their quality of life.
• Exploring emerging technologies and innovations in physical therapy practice.

Nutrition and Exercise

• Examining the role of nutrition in optimizing exercise performance and recovery.
• Analyzing the effects of pre-and post-workout nutrition on muscle protein synthesis.
• The impact of hydration status on exercise capacity and thermoregulation.
• Investigating the effectiveness of dietary supplements in improving athletic performance.
• Exploring the relationship between diet composition and body composition changes with exercise.

Thus, these are the top kinesiology research topics for college students, from which you can choose one you like.

How Do You Find The Right Kinesiology Research Topic?

As we all know, picking a good research topic is crucial for writing a great kinesiology paper. Here are some tips for college students to find the perfect topic:

1. Think About Your Interests

Consider what fascinates you most in kinesiology – sports medicine, exercise psychology, biomechanics, etc. Selecting a topic you’re eager about makes research more enjoyable.

2. Look at Current Trends and Issues

You can browse current topics like wearable fitness technology and how they impact exercise habits. Also, analyzing trends can reveal exciting research questions.

3. Browse Kinesiology Journals and Publications

Titles and abstracts of journal articles can spark ideas for your research topic. See what other scholars are studying.

4. Talk to Your Professor

Ask your professor about their research and if they have tips for your paper topic. They may have ongoing projects you can help with.

5. Brainstorm Keywords and Concepts

Make lists of words and phrases related to your general interest area. Use mind maps and free writing to generate links.

6. Search Online Databases

Use keywords to scan titles and abstracts of papers in PubMed , Google Scholar , etc. Make sure to see what’s already been researched in your target area.

7. Consider Relevant Issues

Tailor issues like obesity, sports traumas or mental health benefits of exercise into a focused research question.

8. Think About Methods and Populations

Consider a specific research method or population to investigate, such as surveys or college athletes.

9. Make Your Topic Original and Focused

Avoid topics that are too broad. Narrow your research question to keep your paper manageable.

10. Ask Your Professor for Feedback

Meet with your professor to discuss your ideas. They can help refine your topic for success.

The key is picking a fascinating, focused question you want to answer through your research. With some effort, you’ll find the perfect kinesiology topic.

Tips To Write Scoring Kinesiology Research Paper

Here are some tips for college students to write scoring kinesiology research papers:

1. Choosing a Good Topic

Picking a fascinating, focused topic is key. As a student researching Kinesiology, you’ll want to select something specific that you can dig into, like sports injuries, yoga benefits, or muscle recovery methods. 

It is good to avoid broad topics that would be impossible to cover in one paper.

2. Research Tips

Now’s the time to hit the books and online sources! Look for recent studies and articles published in scientific journals to support your paper with solid evidence. 

It’s crucial to take perfect notes while researching to organize all your facts and quotes. Don’t just copy word for word – write info in your own words.

3. Creating a Strong Thesis

The thesis statement sets up your entire paper’s main focus and position. Make sure yours is argumentative, focused, and original. 

For example, you could argue that certain yoga poses reduce lower back pain more effectively than pain medication.

4. Outlining for Success

Outlining gives your paper structure before you even write. Make sure to include your main points with proof you’ll use to back them up. 

This helps ensure your paper flows logically when you get to writing. Please do this before drafting paragraphs.

5. Writing an Engaging Intro

Introduce your Kinesiology topic and give any background context needed to understand it. End your introductory paragraph with your main argument. You like to catch the reader’s attention instantly.

6. Paragraph Development

In your body paragraphs, expand on your main points. Use facts, quotes, examples and data from your research to support your claims. No doubt, good transitions between paragraphs create flow.

7. Wrapping It Up

End by restating your thesis in new words. Summarize your strongest evidence and main ideas without adding new info. This gives your paper a sense of completion.

8. Editing and Proofing

Now, read over your paper closely to check for any mistakes and to improve flow. It’s a good idea to have someone, like a teacher or parent, review your work to catch any errors you might have missed.

9. Citations

Properly citing sources avoids plagiarism. Follow the citation style guide from your teacher – maybe MLA or APA – to create a works cited page.

By following these tips, you can write in a way that leads to a high score.

10 Career Opportunities in Kinesiology

Here are the top 10 career opportunities in kinesiology

• Physical therapist
• Athletic trainer
• Occupational therapist
• Strength and conditioning coach
• Cardiac rehabilitation specialist
• Biomechanist
• Prosthetist
• Kinesiology professor

See the image on how much Kinesiology earns annually.

Image source: Salaryexpert

Final Words

From the above blog, it is clear that there are many exciting kinesiology research topics for college students to look into. Thus, doing these topics will allow students to learn more about how the human body that they don’t know. 

Researching these areas allows students to learn how to improve sports performance, stop injuries, understand how the body moves, and promote staying physically active. 

With so many options, kinesiology research enables college students to follow their passions and expand their knowledge in an exciting field of study.

How can I choose a kinesiology research topic?

Consider your interests in sports, health, or movement science. Research emerging areas and consult professors for guidance.

Are there interdisciplinary kinesiology research opportunities?

Yes, explore intersections with psychology, nutrition, engineering, and public health for holistic insights into human movement and performance.

How do I conduct kinesiology research as an undergraduate?

Start by reviewing the literature, formulating research questions, seeking mentorship, designing studies, collecting data, and analyzing findings.

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The Top 10 Most Interesting Exercise Science Research Topics

The field of exercise science is rapidly growing as new technologies like computer visualization and biotracking deepen our understanding of human physiology. New technologies allow us to better prevent injuries, allowing athletes to push their limits beyond what we thought possible. Thanks to this, there is no shortage of exercise science research topics to write about.

In this article, we’ll show you 10 great examples of exercise science research topics. If you are pursuing a degree in this field, you’ll learn better ways of finding good exercise science research paper topics and how to develop stronger exercise science research questions for your projects.

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What makes a strong exercise science research topic.

Strong exercise science research topics are timely and relevant. Leading researchers and sports institutions should still be discussing them at the time you are writing your research paper. The Strength and Conditioning Journal is a great place to find some of the latest activity research topics including articles on different health benefits, health issues, preventive interventions, and rehabilitation after injury.

Your topic should be broad enough to find enough strong sources, but narrow enough to stand out. Controversial topics are acceptable if you have enough evidence to back up your research. If it’s your first paper, consider approaching a less complex topic. You can also ask your teacher for suggestions if you are struggling to find strong university-level topics. Remember to follow the guidelines for choosing a topic set by your institution.

Tips for Choosing an Exercise Science Research Topic

• Choose a topic that intrigues you. A personally interesting topic will motivate you during the research process. If you have a personal connection to what you are researching, you will have a much easier time writing about it.
• Narrow your topic. By picking a specific subject, you will have an easier time finding credible sources to support your research. By reducing the number of books and articles to read and only choosing literature that is immediately relevant to your topic idea, you also won’t have to spend as much effort before starting to write.
• Talk to your teacher or academic advisor. Your teachers are great resources you have at your disposal. They have experience choosing topics for college students and will most likely be able to help you pick a topic you’ll find engaging to research.
• Look through journals to find exciting topics. Review topics published in the journals like the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. These research journals publish the latest fitness research papers and can help you find a topic that interests you.
• Consider the research interests of your teacher. It’ll be convenient if your research topic matches their expertise, as they’ll be able to provide you with better feedback during your research process.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

A research topic is a specific area of study. Sprains in adult athletes or rehabilitation for brain injuries, for example, are research topics. A research question is a way to add new knowledge to that area of study. Examples of research questions would be “What is the role of nutrition in the recovery of sprains in athletes?” or “What is the effect of cardio exercises on adults with brain injuries?”

The goal of your research should be focused around answering the research question. Your answer will help you and others to understand the topic better. Research questions tend to be more specific than the research topics in exercise science.

How to Create Strong Exercise Science Research Questions

To create strong exercise science research questions, you should first become familiar with the topic the question concerns. The answer to your research question should be supported by previous studies done on the topic. Reading previously published studies will help you learn more while preventing you from doing any redundant research.

The scientific method helps exercise scientists better understand their field. Your question should start with how, why, when, or what questions. The scope of your question must be manageable in relation to how long you have to answer it.

Questions that require in-depth experiments may be beyond your reach if you only have a week. Before choosing the question that will lead your research, consider the time it will take you to answer it.

Top 10 Exercise Science Research Paper Topics

1. benefits of resistance training for reducing the negative consequences of aging.

Metabolic resistance training can counter the adverse effects of aging. According to a 2019 study by the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, only nine percent of older adults in the United States practice any form of resistance or weight lifting exercises. Metabolic resistance training for elderly residents has become a recently popular topic, as it has been proven to increase muscle mass and muscle strength and relieve intervertebral joint pain.

2. Determining the Minimal Amount of Physical Exercise Required to Maintain Strength and Stamina

Long periods of physical inactivity harm physical fitness. Scientists want to know how much physical exercise can prevent the loss of muscle strength. The British Journal of Sports Medicine published an article that took an in-depth look into the negative effects of sedentary behavior . There are plenty of physiology research topics about improving daily life with an active lifestyle.

3. Effect of a Low-Carbohydrate Ketogenic Diet on Body Mass on Olympic Weightlifting Athletes

Exercise scientists have realized the impact of nutrition on endurance, body composition, and recovery. This has led to theories being tested of controversial ideas in nutrition and measuring their effects on muscle strength. 

For example, a study by the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research shows that ketogenic diets reduce mass without compromising performance . If you are interested in becoming a nutritionist , researching the role of nutrition in relation to physical activity could be beneficial for your future career.

4. The Effect of Exercise on the Gut Microbiome

The role of exercise on the gut microbiome is an exciting topic in exercise science. In 2019, researchers found some proof that regular exercise increased gut bacteria and contributed to the health of the gut microbiome, as mentioned in a study that was published in Exercises and Sport Science Reviews.

The gut microbiome produces a wide range of biomolecules, including neurotransmitters, that regulate mood and anxiety. Researchers believe that healthy gut bacteria can improve our mental fitness and health. Their research also leads them to believe that gut bacteria can improve the body’s ability to fight inflammatory illnesses and certain types of cancer.

5. Wearable Technology for Health Monitoring and Sport Performance

Smartwatches pack sensors that can track your movement patterns, heart rate, and oxygen levels. In recent years, these bio trackers have become increasingly affordable and easy to use. Researchers at the School of Kinesiology at the University of Michigan have used these sensors to track elderly patients and alert their caregivers in real-time.

In sports, kinesiologists use this technology to measure aerobic speed and the onset of fatigue. With a degree in kinesiology , you can work with elite athletes and improve their athletic performance using these technologies.

6. Optimizing Human Movement Potential for Elite Athletes

Exercise scientists study the biomechanics of human movement to improve the body’s longevity. Understanding the human body allows researchers to develop primary injury prevention methods.

Personal trainers help athletes achieve extraordinary performance without the risk of musculoskeletal injury. If you want to become a certified personal trainer , physiology research paper topics in relation to this topic may be of interest to you.

7. Equity in Sports

Exercise scientists are also concerned with the social aspects of sports. Many athletes live under adverse conditions and need to make extra efforts to match the achievements of others. Equity in sports is currently a very important exercise science topic. Researchers find solutions to increase access to professional sports by improving policies to prevent racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination.

If you want to become a sports agent or an athletic director, look for physiology research topics in relation to equity in sports. Becoming a sports manager takes a certain level of education in the professional fitness industry, such as a graduate degree in sports management .

8. Effect of Bike Commuting on Insulin Sensitivity, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Adipose Tissue

Exercise scientists look for solutions to public health problems like diabetes and obesity. A study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine found that commuting by bike has a significant impact on insulin sensitivity , improving cardiovascular fitness, and reducing belly fat.

With cardiometabolic health such as cardiovascular disease, being an urgent topic in the United States, considering the prevalence of obesity, there is plenty of research on the subject, making it a great initial topic.

9. Reducing Lower Back Pain by Increasing Physical Activity

With athletes having a high sports injury risk, and many injuries causing severe back pain, pain management has become an important topic in exercise science. Exercise scientists research ways to reduce pain using principles in kinesiology and found that increasing physical activity can reduce lower back pain , according to a study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine.

10. Applications of Kinesiology in the Treatment of Movement Dysfunctions

Exercise scientists have been studying the relationship between movement and neuroplasticity for a long time. Physical activity during rehabilitation for stroke patients or patients with brain injuries has proven to reduce movement dysfunctions. Understanding the effects of exercise on neural networks is an important research topic in the field of rehabilitation.

Other Examples of Exercise Science Research Topics & Questions

Exercise science research topics.

• Assessment of the use of virtual reality rehabilitating brain-injured or stroke patients
• The role of caffeine as a sports performance enhancer for optimal performance
• Current and future perspectives on the effects of nutrition on physical exercise performance
• Hormonal responses in older men to metabolic resistance training
• Comparison of occupational physical activity and leisure physical activity on cardiovascular fitness

Exercise Science Research Questions

• What are the benefits of physical activity for cognitive health?
• What is the impact of VR training on human body composition testing?
• What are the advantages of wearing an elevation training mask during physical exercise?
• What are the physiological causes of mental fatigue on endurance performance?
• How does physical exercise improves mental health and academic performance in university students?

Choosing the Right Exercise Science Research Topic

When choosing the right exercise science research topic, consider researching topics that you are already familiar with, as your existing knowledge may help you with your research. You could also ask your academic advisor, other staff in the department of exercise science, or even physical therapy professionals about current trends in exercise science and injury recovery.

Physical fitness and training performance are common themes in exercise science research. Recent articles published by the British Journal of Sports Medicine or the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research are a great place to start. Make sure you choose a manageable research topic. Your teacher can help you make sure your research topic is relevant before you begin.

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Exercise Science Research Topics FAQ

Exercise science is important because it tries to find solutions to problems concerning the optimal performance of athletes and the general health of the human population. Exercise science also helps develop new rehabilitation methods for injury recovery and pain management.

Yes, kinesiology is a STEM discipline that studies exercise and movement. Breakthroughs in kinesiology come from scientific research and the use of the scientific method. It is a wing of the department of exercise science of many universities.

The average salary of an exercise physiologist is $50,280 per year, which is above the national average, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. About half of all exercise physiologists are self-employed, while others work in hospitals, spas, and physical therapy offices.

With a Bachelor’s Degree in Exercise Science, you can get a job as a physical therapist or a fitness instructor. With a graduate degree in exercise science, you can become a sports agent or an athletic director.

About us: Career Karma is a platform designed to help job seekers find, research, and connect with job training programs to advance their careers. Learn about the CK publication .

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Developing a Great Thesis Topic Sentence

• Your thesis topic should reflect that you understand an issue that is worth investigating.
• Ensure that you have clear research objectives and are aware of the findings or results that will be meaningful for your project. 
• Be also clear if your research will be qualitative or quantitative so that your research roadmap is correct from the start.
• We can offer help with topic development for your Master's or Ph.D. or even undergraduate research project.

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Physical education thesis topics | unique topic samples.

Unique Thesis Titles & Topic Ideas on Physical Education

The research paper seeks to address the biological and mental effects that strenuous workout routine imposes on women, and how it affects their behavior, attitudes, and even maternal instincts. The study also seeks to provide more explanation for the behavioral changes witnessed in these women. We professionally assist all clients who come to our firm requesting, “I need help to write a topic for a physical education thesis”.

Expert Advice on Choosing a Physical Education Thesis Topic:

• Consider your area of interest : The first step in choosing a physical education thesis topic is to consider your area of interest. Are you interested in the impact of physical activity on student academic performance, or are you more interested in the effects of physical education programs on student health and wellness? Consider what you are passionate about and what you would like to explore further in your research.
• Identify a gap in the research : Once you have identified your area of interest, it is important to identify a gap in the research. What questions have not been answered in your area of interest, and what new information or insights can you contribute to the field?
• Seek out experts in the field : Before settling on a specific topic, it is a good idea to seek out experts in the field. Reach out to physical education professors, researchers, or other professionals in the field and ask for their advice on potential topics.
• The effects of physical education programs on student health and wellness : This topic could explore the impact of physical education programs on student health, looking at factors such as weight, body mass index, and overall physical fitness levels.
• The impact of physical education programs on student behavior : This is a good topic for a PhD project that could examine the impact of physical education programs on student behavior, exploring factors such as absenteeism, discipline referrals, and overall school climate.

Physical education is a critical aspect of a well-rounded education and has numerous physical and mental health benefits for students. When choosing among thesis topics in physical education, consider your area of interest, identify a gap in the research, and seek out experts in the field. Some examples of potential thesis topics include the impact of physical activity on academic performance, the effects of physical education programs on student health and wellness, the impact of physical education programs on student behavior, the role of physical education in promoting healthy habits, and the impact of technology on physical education programs.

Physical Education Research Topics for College Students

✓  Finally, the role of physical education in promoting healthy habits and lifestyle choices is an important research topic . Research has shown that physical education can have a positive impact on a student’s health and well-being, and can help to foster healthy habits and lifestyle choices. Students can explore the various factors that influence students’ health and well-being, and identify the best strategies for promoting healthy habits and lifestyle choices in physical education programs.

In short, physical education research topics for college students are a rich and exciting field of study, with the potential to make a real difference in the lives of students and the wider community. Whether exploring the impact of physical activity on cognitive function, mental health, academic performance, or healthy habits, there are many exciting opportunities for college students to contribute to this important field of study.

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Best Title for Physical Education – Research Topic Writing Tips

So, how can you develop the best research title?  Here are some tips to help you get started .

• Consider Your Audience : The title of your physical education program should be tailored to your target audience, which in this case are students. You should choose a title that appeals to their interests and captures their attention. This can be achieved by using language that is easy to understand and relatable to their daily experiences.
• Focus on the Benefits : Physical education is about more than just exercise; it's also about developing valuable life skills. Make sure that the title of your program highlights these benefits so that students understand what they stand to gain from participating. For example, a title like "Building Stronger Bodies and Brighter Futures" would emphasize the dual benefits of physical education.
• Use Action-Oriented Language : The title of your physical education program should encourage students to get involved and take action. Words like "challenge," "discover," "explore," and "adventure" can help to create a sense of excitement and motivation, while also emphasizing the hands-on, active nature of the program. Reach out to us and we will help you with suitable titles for your physical education research project and how to write it skillfully.
• Embrace Creativity : There's no reason why your physical education program title needs to be bland and uninspired. Embrace your creative side and choose a title that's unique, memorable, and reflects the spirit of your program. For example, a title like "Fit for Adventure" would help to create a sense of excitement and adventure, while also emphasizing the importance of physical fitness.
• Keep it Short and Sensible : A long, complicated title may look impressive, but it won't do you much good if students can't remember it. Keep your title short, simple, and easy to remember. A title like "Fit to Succeed" would be easy for students to remember and communicate to others, while still communicating the key benefits of physical education.

In addition to these tips, it's also important to consider the specific goals and objectives of your physical education program. This will help you to choose a title that accurately reflects the focus of your program, while also appealing to students. For example, if your program is focused on developing teamwork skills, you might choose a title like "Team Players: Building Strong Bodies and Strong Relationships." Having the best title for physical education projects is an important factor in its success. By considering your audience, focusing on the benefits, using action-oriented language, embracing creativity, and keeping it short and sweet, you can develop a title that will help to engage and motivate students. With the right title, you can help to make your physical education program a valuable and meaningful part of their education and set them on the path to a healthier, more active lifestyle.

More Recent Research Topics for Physical Education Projects

Students look for quality physical education thesis topics editing support, to ensure they work with the best titles within the subject. This is to ensure they address the right issues that people have about their physical health & fitness.

🗸 Benefits of physical education & exercise to an individual’s quality of life -  Relevantly, exercise helps people live longer, while equally giving people the chance to live better. To make one's heart & muscles strong to fend off diseases, physical education comes in handy. As such, people’s mental and emotional functioning is improved hence better productivity. 

🗸 Relevance of physical activities for rehabilitation for stroke patients -  The objective of physical activities for stroke patients is to determine whether training after the disease can reduce death, disability, and dependence. More so, it’s crucial in assessing whether the effects of training reduce or intensifies risk factors to do with mobility, physical function, physical fitness, and cognitive functioning.  

🗸 The contribution of physical education to an individual’s formation -  Through physical education, students can easily develop their competence and confidence in taking part in a wide range of activities. These activities become a part of their lives in and out of school, which makes students succeed in various physical activities. As such, scholars can develop a lot of skills, thus attaining the ability to apply strategies & tactics to perform successfully.

🗸 Importance of having a personal trainer for bodybuilding training -  It is good to have a personal trainer, to provide the best guidance through the right positioning during the exercise. This will assist in ensuring that one is performing the exercise effectively and suitably thus the best results while avoiding injuries. 

🗸 The influence that physical education teachers have on students’ physical activity -  A physical educator provides ample teaching skills & activities within the class period which they transfer into physical activity. Physical education motivates young people/students to be physically active, and play the role of physical practitioners in their schools.

Writing a thesis isn’t a simple task, as physical education thesis topics must be popular and actual. It’s essential to learn what people are looking for and whether the topic you choose is interesting enough to create a great thesis. Getting  quality help to develop a physical education thesis topic  is essential for students, who intend to realize an interesting title to develop a good project. Writing a thesis based on a less interesting topic will make it hard for a student to complete the project, the reason why seeking the best research help is necessary. On the other hand, scholars may possess the best facts, however, be unready to identify the best topic for their projects. Getting relevant guidance to create workable physical education research topics shouldn’t be an afterthought, to present a project that addresses the needs of persons intending to keep fit and healthy the right way. It’s good to remember that a thesis on physical education must have a topic that primarily addresses all frequently asked questions regarding a healthy way of living.

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How to Settle for a Great Physical Education Research Topic

Remember that a quality thesis topic is what will determine the professionalism of the whole task. Therefore, you need a strategy for finding great topic ideas for physical education research. Considering the below three aspects will boost your efforts to get a good topic.

• Look for reliable information on the topic
• Take time to consider whether or not the provided information is relevant and clear
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If it becomes rather impossible to do it alone, doors at our firm are wide open for you. When you send a mail or call us, we shall always be ready to provide quality physical education thesis topic ideas help at the right time without overcharging you.

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

• Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
• Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
• Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
• Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
• Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
• Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

• PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

• THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

• LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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• Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance.
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